There are many people in the world who call for something and then tear their hair out when it happens.

As soon as he ascended the throne, Paul 1 changed the order of succession to the throne in Russia, which had been in effect without changes since the time of Peter the Great. Paul 1 changed the position that the future monarch is determined by the will of the incumbent. From now on, only representatives of the ruling dynasty had rights to the throne. male line in order of seniority. Thus began the internal policy of Emperor Paul 1.

The next stage of Paul 1’s actions within the country was the search for associates and winning the love and respect of most of the people. To achieve these goals, Paul 1 almost completely removed from power all the officials who served Empress Catherine. New officials loyal to Emperor Paul were appointed to the vacant positions. The domestic policy of Paul 1 continued to soften the living conditions of the peasants. First of all, the emperor repealed the law that prohibited peasants from complaining about the landowners. After this, all types of corporal punishment for peasants were abolished, all arrears from peasants were canceled, the amount of which at the time Pavle 1 came to power exceeded 7 million rubles. In addition, Paul 1 reduced corvee throughout the country. If earlier corvee (free work of peasants on the landowner's fields) was 6 days a week, now it should not exceed 3 days a week. The imperial decree also prohibited the involvement of peasants in corvee work on weekends, as well as on religious holidays.

The main events of the emperor's policy

The internal policy of Paul 1 continued with the solution of the food issue in the country. The country had extremely high prices for all types of food. To solve this problem, Paul 1 issued a decree according to which everyone was obliged to trade at reduced prices for food obtained from state reserves.

The new emperor tried to instill fear and respect for his person in everyone. As a result, mass repressions began in the country. At the same time, the emperor did not look at the rank or origin of the accused. Paul 1 was not interested in violations either; sometimes nobles who simply violated their dress code were exiled and deprived of all titles and privileges. Paul 1 liked to repeat that there are practically no noble people in his country, and those with whom the emperor deigns to speak are considered noble, and exactly as long as the emperor speaks to him. The domestic policy of Paul 1 was extremely cruel for the country's elite. The secret chancellery, which dealt with such cases, met almost without interruption. In total, during the reign of Emperor Paul 1, 721 cases were processed through the Secret Chancellery, which amounted to almost 180 cases per year. For example, during the reign of Empress Catherine 2, the secret chancellery met on average 25 times a year, investigating 1 case per convocation.

Controversy in domestic politics

The problem of studying the era of Paul 1 is that this emperor brought almost any undertaking to the point of insanity, when ideas were simultaneously implemented that were radically different from each other and which led to contradictions. That is why today they say that Paul’s internal policy was very contradictory and there were a lot of dark spots in it. For example:

• Attitude towards revolutionaries. Pavel 1 tried to show his loyalty to the revolutionaries, as a result of which he returned Radishchev, Kosciuszko, Novikov and others from exile. At the same time, he evilly persecutes everyone who has anything to do with the French Revolution.
• Politics in the army. The Emperor prohibits the admission of minors into the guard. This is an absolute plus, but at the same time the same emperor is reforming the army in the Prussian manner (the Prussian army has never been distinguished for its strength and skill).
• Peasant question. One of the main initiatives of the emperor's domestic policy was the decree on three-day corvee, which significantly limited the powers of serf owners. On the other hand, the emperor issues a decree and literally showers all landowners with new lands.
• Public administration. A law on succession to the throne is adopted (it had long been outdated and needed reform), but Paul simultaneously eliminated many colleges, which led to chaos within the country.

The domestic policy of Paul 1 also affected reforms in the army. True, they were not widespread and affected, first of all, the relationship between a soldier and an officer. Paul 1 prohibited cruel punishment of soldiers by officers. For violating this prohibition, the punishments for officers were the most severe and were no different from the punishments for soldiers who allowed themselves to insult an officer.

In whose interests did Paul 1 rule?

Paul 1 pursued internal policies to strengthen his power, and also tried to ease the role of the common man. The emperor's internal policy was carried out in the interests of ordinary categories of the population. Naturally, this displeased the major nobles, who regularly plotted against their emperor. As a result, the internal policy of Paul 1 became one of the components of a future conspiracy against the emperor. A conspiracy that cost Pavel 1 his life.

Paul the First went down in history as a cruel reformer. Liberal views and European tastes were persecuted, censorship was established, and a ban on the import of foreign literature into the country was established. The Emperor, having received the throne, largely limited the rights of the nobility. Maybe that's why his reign was so short.

In contact with

Childhood

Peter the Third, Paul's father, was on the Russian throne for only 186 days, although he planned that many years of rule lay ahead of him. After the palace coup, the emperor signed an abdication of the throne, which passed to his wife (Princess Anhalt-Zerbst).

Catherine built her reign on expanding the rights and privileges of the noble class, as well as enslaving the peasants. During her reign borders Russian Empire were moved to the south and west.

The first son of Peter and Catherine, named Pavel, was born on September 20, 1754. During this period, there was a political struggle in the palace, so the boy was deprived of the love and care of his parents. At the age of eight he lost his father. Paul's mother hired a staff of the best nannies and teachers, after which she withdrew from raising the future heir to the throne.

Boy's teacher became Fedor Bekhteev- a diplomat distinguished by incredible discipline and rigor. He published a newspaper where the slightest misdeeds of the pupil were described. The second mentor was Nikita Panin, thanks to whom the boy began to study a wide range of subjects - natural history, the Law of God, music, dance.

The immediate environment also had an influence on the formation of the personality of the heir to the throne, but communication with peers was kept to a minimum - only children of noble families were allowed to interact with him.

Ekaterina bought it for her son the huge library of academician Korf. The boy studied many foreign languages, arithmetic, astronomy, history, geography, learned to draw, dance and fencing, and studied the Law of God. The boy was not taught military discipline; Catherine did not want her son to get carried away with it.

The heir had an impatient character and was a restless child, but could boast of a rich imagination and love of reading. His education was as high quality as possible at that time.

Personal life of the future emperor

The first wife of the future ruler died during childbirth, and the second chosen one was Sophia Dorothea of ​​Württemberg (Maria Fedorovna).

Children of Paul I– firstborn Alexander (1777), Konstantin (1779), Alexandra (1783), Elena (1784), Maria (1786), Catherine (1788), Olga (1792, died in infancy), Anna (1795), Nikolai (1796) ), Mikhail (1798).

Despite having many children and almost constant pregnancies, Maria Fedorovna took care of the house and regularly participated in social events. However, she was not of particular importance at court due to her husband’s discord with his mother.

Maria Feodorovna was a submissive princess, who followed the postulates that she had learned in her youth, but due to circumstances beyond her control, her personal life with her husband came to discord after 20 years. After the birth of her last son, the obstetrician forbade her to become pregnant, as it could cost the woman her life.

The Emperor was disappointed by this circumstance and started a relationship with another woman, his favorite Anna Lopukhina. Maria Feodorovna herself became involved in charity work and began managing orphanages, streamlining the work of institutions for homeless and abandoned children. She also actively addressed issues of women's education and founded a number of educational institutions for them.

Rise to power

When Paul I reigned? He ascended the throne at the age of 42 on November 6, 1796, when Catherine II, his mother, died. This late date is explained by the complex relationship between the future emperor and his mother. They almost completely moved away from each other, realizing that they were people with opposing views. At first, the boy was raised as a future heir to the throne, but the older he became, the further they tried to keep him from matters of national importance.

Important! Many people had high hopes for Pavel Petrovich. His name was often on the lips of rebels, for example, . During the reign of Catherine II, many were dissatisfied with her decrees and laws.

Transformations

Numerous reforms characterize the reign of Paul 1: domestic and foreign policy underwent a number of changes.

What important steps have been taken:

• amendments were introduced to the procedure of succession to the throne, which was developed. The rights to the throne began to be enjoyed exclusively by the sons or brothers of the ruling dynasty in a descending line, or by seniority;
• the emperor's associates received the titles of senior officials or senators;
• comrades of Catherine II were removed from their posts;
• the activities of the highest government bodies have undergone changes for the better;
• a petition box was placed next to the palace, and reception days were also established for peasants who could openly leave complaints against their owners;
• corporal punishment has been abolished for older people over 70 years of age;
• Instead of the grain duty, which was burdensome for peasants, a financial tax was introduced. Debts of 7 million rubles were written off;
• it was forbidden to force peasants to work on holidays and weekends;
• corvee was limited - now it lasted 3 days a week;
• the sale of landless peasants and household servants was banned. If the owner treated the serfs inhumanely, the governors were obliged to carry out secret arrests and send the offenders to the monastery.
• over 4 years, 6,000 thousand state peasants were transferred to the nobles, since the emperor believed that their life was worse than that of the serfs;
• the cost of salt and food products in stores was reduced - the shortfall was compensated for by money from the treasury.

When Paul came to power, one of the the most important areas His activities turned out to be an infringement of the privileges and rights of the nobles.

He ordered all noble children who were enrolled in them to return to the regiments, and prohibited the unauthorized transfer to civilian service from the army without the permission of the Senate, approved by him personally.

The nobles had to pay new taxes, the money from which was sent to support the local administration.

The right according to which a nobleman addressed him with complaints and requests was abolished: now this was allowed to be done only with the permission of the governor. Punishment of noble people with sticks was reintroduced.

Immediately after ascending the throne, the emperor declared an amnesty, but multiple punishments soon followed. Decrees of Paul the First, limiting the power of the nobility, aroused anger and enmity on the part of the privileged class. Over time, the first conspiracies began to appear in the highest guards circles to overthrow the autocrat.

Features of foreign policy

Initially, it was announced at court that neutrality would be observed towards France. He always dreamed that wars would be fought solely for the purpose of defense. However, he was an opponent of the revolutionary sentiments of this country. Friendly relations were concluded with countries such as Sweden, Denmark and Prussia, which was the result of the creation of an anti-French coalition consisting of:

• Russia,
• Kingdom of Naples,
• Austria,
• England.

In Italy, commander A.V. Suvorov headed the domestic expeditionary force. In just six months, he won a victory in Italy over French troops, after which he entered Sweden, where he joined the corps of General A.M. Rimsky-Korsakov.

During the same period, the squadron F.F. Ushakova achieved several naval victories, as a result of which the Ionian Islands became free. However, the Russian-English corps located in Holland was unable to achieve its plans, as a result of which it returned. At the same time, only Russia's allies reaped the fruits of victories over Napoleon, which caused the severance of allied ties with Austria and England. The Emperor, outraged by England's position, decided to move closer to France.

Cause of the Emperor's death

A conspiracy was formed against the ruling emperor. It was headed by the Zubov brothers, the military governor of St. Petersburg P.A.

Palen and a number of others. The reason for the conspiracy is the internal policy of the autocrat, because he eased the situation of the peasants and at the same time limited the rights and privileges of the noble class.

Among the conspirators was Alexander Pavlovich, who was promised that his father would be left alive.

Led by Count Palen on the night of March 12, 1801 The conspirators broke into the Mikhailovsky Castle, reached the imperial chambers and put forward a demand to leave the throne. Having heard Paul's refusal to abdicate the throne, the conspirators killed the autocrat.

There were several conspiracies during the life and reign of the emperor. Thus, three cases of unrest among the troops were recorded. After the coronation of the new emperor, the Canal Workshop was formed - a secret organization whose members sought to kill the ruler. After the discovery of this conspiracy, all those who took part in it were sent to hard labor or exiled. All materials related to the investigation into the conspiracy were destroyed.

It was officially announced that Emperor Paul 1 had died from apoplexy.

Paul 1st - reign of the Tsar, reforms

The reign of Tsar Paul 1st - domestic and foreign policy, results

Results of the board

How long did Paul 1 reign?? His reign lasted several years, years of reign: from April 5, 1797. to March 12, 1801. In such a short period of time, no significant changes occurred in Russian society, although the emperor tried to introduce as many new measures as possible. At the beginning of the reign, favorable conditions were created for the development of industry and trade, but by the end of the reign, internal trade was in chaos and ruin, and external trade was almost completely destroyed.

Attention! The state was in a sad state when Paul I was killed.

Who ruled after Paul 1? The heir to the throne was his first-born Alexander 1. His reign turned out to be more successful: the first step was taken, the State Council was created, and a victory was won over Napoleon in 1812; the Russian army distinguished itself in other foreign campaigns. was more successful.

Characteristics of the reign of Paul I

Volgograd, 2012

Introduction

Historians of all times cannot unambiguously assess the foreign and domestic policies of Paul I.

Having come to power, Paul I already had a plan for the development of the state. First of all, he begins to break everything old and hated. Only because it reminded him of his mother. Significant changes are taking place within the state. The legislative process is proceeding at a pace that the Russian Empire has never seen before.

One of the reasons that Paul I was called a madman was that he allegedly pursued an inconsistent foreign policy. Nobles and landowners harshly criticized the actions of the emperor, who broke the alliance with England and entered into an alliance with republican France. The vast majority of nobles were wary of revolutionary France and the events that took place in it.

Also, historians cannot say exactly who Paul I was; some call him an insane tyrant and despot, others note his sharp mind and progressive Political Views.

I found this interesting to study. After reading several sources on that era, I noticed some differences in the authors’ views on the course of certain events. In this work I will try to combine the opinions of different people.

The purpose of my work is to clarify the characteristics of the reign of Paul I in the life of our state. To do this, it is necessary to consider internal reforms and his foreign policy, as well as understand Paul’s personality, what family and life factors influenced him after ascending the throne. Only having received answers to all these questions, it is possible to analyze the results of the reign of Paul I.

Chapter I. Personality of Paul I

Pavel I Petrovich (October 1, 1754-March 24, 1801) - the ninth Emperor of Russia (1796-1801) from the Romanov imperial family<#"justify">Chapter II. Domestic policy

Paul I began his reign by changing all the orders of Catherine's rule.

On the day of his coronation, the emperor announced a series of decrees. The most important of these was the decree on succession to the throne, which was subsequently in force until 1917. Paul I canceled Peter's decree on the appointment by the emperor himself of his successor to the throne and established a clear system of succession to the throne. In which the voluntarism of the emperor in appointing a successor and the possibility of usurping the throne were excluded. The throne was supposed to pass only through the male line from father to son, and in the absence of sons, to the eldest of the brothers. A woman could occupy the throne and pass it on to her offspring only if the male line was terminated. paul emperor politics reign

Having become emperor, Paul I tried to strengthen the regime by strengthening discipline and power in order to exclude all manifestations of liberalism and freethinking. The characteristic features of the reign of Paul I were harshness, instability and temper. He believed that everything in the country should be subject to the orders established by the monarch; He put efficiency and accuracy in the first place. The new emperor saw before him the ghost of Pugachevism (experienced by his mother), the symptoms of revolution (French events and the fate of the executed Louis XVI reminded him of this) and the danger of a coup d'etat (his father, Peter III, at one time became a victim of a palace conspiracy).

Pavel strove for maximum centralization and regulations in all spheres of life. He attached great importance to the army, into which he introduced Russian orders. He pays great attention to parades and shows. 7 field marshals and more than 300 generals were dismissed from the highest ranks. Non-noble officers were fired. At the same time, Paul I showed concern for the soldiers. Military schools were created for soldier orphans. Distinguished soldiers received the right to leave before the end of their service, 100 rubles each for establishment and land allotment.

In the capital, the new emperor tried to establish the same rules of the Prussian barracks from the time of Frederick II that were in his Gatchina residence. The traditions of the Russian army, which brought it glory, did not suit the emperor: his ideal was the Prussian military system, which knocked out any initiative from the soldiers. Every day, on the square in front of the palace, parades were held, during which the slightest offense could lead to disgrace. There were also positive elements in the military transformations of Paul I: he expelled from the army the officers who were in it but did not serve, and forced the capital's guards officers, who under Catherine led an idle life, to bear the hardships of military life. However, the service under Paul I was meaningless, formal, and took place in an atmosphere of uncertainty and fear.

In 1767, the next most important document was the Manifesto on the Three-Day Corvee, which for the first time in the history of the Russian Empire introduced restrictions on the use of the labor of serfs. The Pavlovsky Manifesto became the first legislative act to significantly limit the rights of landowners, who were prohibited from forcing peasants to work on Sundays. The decree on three-day corvee recommended that landowners limit the exploitation of peasants in the master's plowing to three days a week; it was forbidden to sell under the hammer courtyards and landless peasants. Prohibition of splitting up peasant families. Paul understood perfectly well that it was the labor of the peasants at that time that was the economic basis of the empire. In his opinion, the greatest harm to agricultural production was caused by corvée, which was uncontrolled and led to the ruthless exploitation of peasants who became disinterested in the growth of crops.

Paul resolutely suppressed all attempts to penetrate European free-thinking into Russia. Fearing the spread of the ideas of the French Revolution in Russia, Paul I banned the wearing of “vests”, the travel of young people abroad to study, the import of books was completely prohibited, even sheet music, and private printing houses were closed. The change in sympathies from anti-French to anti-English was expressed in the ban on “round hats” and the word “club”. Puritan moral considerations led to a ban on dancing the waltz, because it dangerously brings people of different sexes together. For completely incomprehensible reasons, the shape of the cab driver's cart was strictly designated, and therefore a significant part of the capital's cab drivers with inappropriate transport were sent away. The import of foreign literature was prohibited, and a sharply negative attitude towards revolutionary France was also manifested in foreign policy.

Paul's reforms were aimed at resolving the problem of succession to the throne, creating a harmonious centralized control system, changing the army and military administration.

Chapter III. Foreign policy

Paul I began his reign with a statement that Russia needs peace. He stopped the war with Persia that began in the last weeks of Catherine’s life, returned the regiments sent there, and proclaimed Russia’s withdrawal from the anti-French coalition. In April 1796, the French general Napoleon Bonaparte began his campaigns of conquest in Central Europe. New aggressive actions, French preparations for the Egyptian expedition, the arrest of the Russian consul on the Ionian Islands, patronage of Polish emigrants, rumors about the French intention to attack the northern shore of the Black Sea, forced Paul I to change his policy of non-alignment. Napoleon's conquests, plans and goals could have closed Russia's path to the Balkans and posed a direct threat to the Northern Black Sea region. In addition, Paul and his dignitaries were afraid of the threat of the revolution spreading in Europe and the penetration of its ideas directly into Russia. Therefore, Paul I continues to fight against France, which was striving for dominance in Europe. In 1798, Russia joined the anti-French coalition consisting of England, Austria, Turkey and the Kingdom of Naples. Military operations concentrated in Italy, Switzerland and the Mediterranean Sea.

Successful operations of the Russian fleet took place jointly with the Turkish squadron under the overall command of Vice Admiral F.F. Ushakov. The Russian fleet under the command of F.F. Ushakova entered the Adriatic Sea and, together with the Turkish squadron, liberated the Ionian Islands from the French. The island of Corfu with what was considered an impregnable fortress was captured (1799). Ushakov successfully operated on the eastern coast of the Apennine Peninsula and during the spring and summer of 1799, then, with the help of landings, the French were expelled from Naples and Rome. The Commander-in-Chief created self-government bodies on the islands - the Republic of the Seven Islands under the temporary protectorate of Russia and Turkey. Liberated part of the cities of Southern and Central Italy: Brindisi, Manfredonia, Naples, Ancona.

Russian ground army under the command of A.V. Suvorova successfully operated in Northern Italy. The Russian fleet operated against the French in the Mediterranean Sea and sent landings to Italy to help the Neapolitan king Ferdinand VI. Suvorov, not only an experienced and brave military general, but also an independent tactician, gifted with a remarkable talent for military creativity, quickly, in just a month and a half, cleared all of northern Italy from French troops, defeating the French on the Adda River. When the French armies of Moreau and MacDonald rushed at him with the goal of depriving him of his conquests and ousting him from Italy, Suvorov forced Moreau to retreat without a fight, and defeated Macdonald in a three-day battle on the banks of the Trebia. The next commander-in-chief appointed, Joubert, was defeated and killed at the Battle of Novi.

In the fall of 1799, Paul I ordered the transfer of A.V.’s troops. Suvorov to Switzerland to join the A.M. corps. Rimsky-Korsakov and allied Austrian troops. In September 1799, the Russian army made Suvorov's famous crossing of the Alps<#"justify">Conclusion

The short but eventful reign of the revolutionary emperor is a milestone in Russian and world history that requires comprehension and more detailed study, since it was the world's first attempt to build a new progressive state, the state of the future.

Emperor Paul experienced the usual tragedy for personalities of his stature - he was far ahead of his time and found himself misunderstood by no one. Pavel began this unequal struggle almost alone and died. Paul made a serious and carefully thought-out attempt to create a type of state that would much later be called corporate, national socialist, to build a spiritual and military all-European organization of the order type so that all Europeans, regardless of religion and class, could, on the basis of personal data and their own merits, having entered it, with a united front to block the path to “equalization with inferiors.” The misunderstood Emperor developed the spiritual foundations of an ideal society - popular unity, “aristocratization”, hierarchy, the cult of military valor, loyalty and self-sacrifice - precisely that spiritual core of society, which many decades later made the most serious attempt to break the back of the ideology of “equality with inferiors” in favor .

The activities of Paul I in the public sphere allow us to speak of him as a fairly far-sighted and mature politician. Precisely because it reform activities was aimed at limiting noble arbitrariness , its further interpretation in the noble, in spirit, literature of the 19th century. often received a purely negative assessment, and Paul I himself was portrayed as a tyrant and a despot. Meanwhile, the foundation laid in the state administration of Russia by Paul's decrees will turn out to be fundamental in the future - during the reign of Alexander I. The easing of peasant oppression, the ministerial type of government of the country, the admission of the merchant class into the management of commerce and some others will determine the dynamics of social development for many decades to come.

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After the death of Catherine 2, her son Paul 1 ascended the throne in 1796 - 1801. He joined at the age of 42. Pavel 1 and Catherine 2, mother and son, developed an unusual relationship. They hated each other. Paul 1 had reasons for this: he considered his mother to be involved in the murder of his father, Peter 3. In addition, he believed that she illegally took the throne, that is, she deprived him of legitimate power. These are the motives on the part of Paul 3.

Catherine 2 hated her husband and transferred this hatred to her son. Then she also saw him as her competitor. She understood that she had taken his place and was afraid of a conspiracy. Paul 1 was removed from the throne during his reign. He was in a residence near St. Petersburg in Gatchino, almost under house arrest.

Major dignitaries behaved arrogantly towards him. Therefore, having come to power, Paul 1 naturally dispersed all officials; he did not have his own program for the development of Russia, but acted from the opposite. Everything his mother did, he did the opposite. In addition, after the death of Catherine, his idea of ​​indirect participation in the murder of Peter 3 was confirmed.

Paul 1 was an honest man. He tried to objectively evaluate the activities of his subordinates, but his instability prevented him from doing this in practice. He suffered to a lesser extent from the same shortcomings as his father, Peter 3. He made many mistakes, repeating the mistakes of his father.

He introduces Prussian uniforms into the army, Prussian regulations, and the impression of his strange behavior is created. It was as if he did everything on purpose to be hated.

In 1801, the guards deposed him. And even at this critical moment, he behaved inappropriately. When 40 officers burst into his quarters, he began to fight with these soldiers. In this fight he was strangled like his father.

22. Russia in the first quarter of the 19th century (Alexander 1)

After another palace coup in 1801, the son of Paul 1, Alexander 1 (1801 - 1825), ascended the throne. Alexander 1 knew about the impending conspiracy against his father. And although the conspirators did not set themselves the task of physically eliminating Paul 1, Alexander 1 still felt guilty throughout his entire life. Paul 1 is a man whose mother takes part in the murder of his father, and whose son takes part in his murder.

Alexander 1 ascended the throne at the age of 21. He was an educated, well-mannered, handsome, sociable young man. His grandmother, Ekaterina 2, did all this. She herself was involved in his upbringing. Unlike his father, Alexander was a supporter of liberal management methods. He was full of desire to reform, was accessible to everyone, and at the moment of his enthronement, people rejoiced at this. Everyone admired him and he liked it.

The reign of Alexander 1 can be divided into 2 halves: before the Patriotic War with France until 1814 and the post-war half of the reign. In the first half of his reign, Alexander 1 tried to implement many liberal reforms. He was created secret committee, which included young, educated, liberal-minded people like him. In this committee, the emperor behaved as an equal with equals. It was a narrow circle of friends who developed various projects.

Despite his education, almost all of Alexander 1’s reforms were not implemented. The main reason for failure reform initiatives of Alexander 1 was that, despite the education of him and those around him, they did not know real life. As an example, we can cite the decree “On free cultivators”. By this decree he allows landowners to set the peasants free. By issuing a decree, he believes that he has abolished serfdom and solved a long-standing problem. But this decree did not solve anything.

Under Alexander 1, ministries were created and a council of ministers was created. Many transformations were carried out on the initiative of a major statesman of that time Mikhail Mikhailovich Speransky. Coming from the very bottom, thanks to his talents, he rose to the highest level under Alexander 1. He was actually the second person after Alexander 1. Speransky was the author of the concept “On the creation of a rule-of-law state,” the essence of which was to ensure the independence of 3 branches of government, legislative, executive, judicial, from each other. Speransky was the author code of Russian legislation. Speransky developed and proposed to introduce a Constitution and thereby limit the rights of the emperor. This is a liberal, democratic reformer.

In 1812, war broke out with France. It is called Patriotic War of 1812. The war ended with the defeat of France. Napoleon, who was invincible, was defeated. Russia acted as the liberator of Western Europe. On the initiative of Russia, the so-called Holy Alliance led by Russia, led by Alexander. The main task of this union was maintaining existing borders in Europe and suppressing any revolutionary movement.

This situation or other circumstances, but gradually Alexander’s personality changes. A liberal and democrat in the first half of his reign after the Patriotic War of 1812 gradually turned into a reactionary. He refuses any democratic reforms, Speransky goes into exile, his place is taken by General Arakcheev. This is a reactionary who was able to subjugate Alexander 1. In fact, the country is ruled by Arakcheev. All information comes filtered through Arakcheev. In the second half of his reign, Alexander becomes a pessimist, he is increasingly visited by moments of depression and gradually loses interest in governing the country.

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Emperor Paul 1 ruled the country for a little over four years. In such a short period of time it is difficult to make fundamental changes in the course of a huge country, but the Russian autocrat tried his best, as if feeling how little time was allotted to him. However, his reforms among his contemporaries did not evoke approval, but mostly horror and indignation. It was rumored that the king was overcome by madness. Two centuries later, some things really seem like cruel tyranny, but some orders were ahead of their time.

Domestic policy

Strictly speaking, at 42 years old, he was not ready to become the emperor of a huge power. , who did not feel love for her son, removed him from all government affairs. At the same time, the heir to the throne received a better education. Pavel's impetuous nature was carried away by everything at once. In his aspirations, the emperor knew no limits and often reached the point of absurdity.

The first thing after the coronation for Paul was to restore justice to his father, Peter 3. His ashes were transferred to the imperial tomb and buried next to the deceased Catherine. A decree on succession to the throne was issued, canceling all Peter's amendments. Now the throne had to pass from father to son.

Paul greatly curtailed the privileges of the nobility favored by Catherine. Corporal punishment for this class was returned to legal practice, and new taxes were established. But it became much more difficult to complain and ask the sovereign - something went exclusively through self-government bodies, and something was completely banned.

Paul 1's passion was the army and, having received power, he began with zeal to restore order in it. A new uniform was introduced, and overcoats appeared for the first time. The officer lists were thoroughly cleaned up and the requirements were increased - now each officer bore criminal responsibility for the lives of his subordinates. Soldiers received the right to complain about their commanders, and for their courage they could receive a silver medal - the first military order for privates in Rus'. Nobles could enter the civil service only with special permission. Disciplinary requirements skyrocketed, and the army spent its days drilling.

Easements were made for national and religious minorities. In particular, Paul's decree allowed the construction of Old Believer churches.

The emperor's nightmare was revolutionary ideas from France, torn by coups. The most severe censorship was introduced, to the point that it was forbidden to import books and study at European universities.

Foreign policy

In foreign policy, Paul 1 was guided by two simple ideas - opposition to the French Revolution and support of the Order of Malta. From his youth, the Russian emperor was fascinated by the aesthetics of chivalry and was extremely flattered by the title of Grand Master he received. However, in reality, this semi-childish hobby served as a reason for the destruction of the old alliance and adventurous military campaigns.

At first, Pavel formally supported the anti-French coalition. The sack of Malta by Napoleon's army forced him to take active action. The allies were glad to receive the help of the Russian emperor. They insisted on participating in the campaign of the disgraced Suvorov, but after the rapid liberation of northern Italy, their opinions about further actions differed.

Meanwhile, England took possession of Malta, recaptured from Napoleon. Pavel considered this a reason to withdraw from the coalition and sever diplomatic relations - the Mediterranean island should belong exclusively to the order and Russia, as its successor. Not long before this, the joint Russian-British rescue of the Netherlands from French occupation ended in failure, and the superiority of the royal merchant fleet simply irritated all northern neighbors. Meanwhile, Napoleon behaved very smartly: he wrote a very warm letter to the Russian emperor, and also sent home Russian prisoners of war who were in France, without any demands for exchange, etc. Moreover, he ordered to dress them at the expense of the French treasury in the uniform of their units. Such courtesy completely captivated Pavel 1. He abruptly changed direction foreign policy Russia, concluded an anti-English alliance with Bonaparte and even almost organized a campaign against the Indian possessions of the English crown, but...