Introduction
The term "parliament" comes from a Latin word and literally means "talking room", "interview", "serious conversation". The term "legislature" also comes from the Latin word "lex" - law. The first ancestors of parliaments appeared in the 12th-13th centuries. - Spanish Cortes and English Parliament.
The relevance of the chosen topic for the essay is due to the fact that in the last decade in Russia the political poles of power have been the President and the State Duma. The relationship between the head of state and elected bodies in Russia has always been contradictory. During the reign of the last autocrat of the Russian Empire, Nicholas II, a new state authority appeared - the State Duma.
The concept of “Federal Assembly” was first used in the draft Constitution of the Russian Federation prepared by the Constitutional Commission created by the First Congress of People's Deputies (known as O. Rumyantsev's project), where the Federal Assembly was understood as one of the chambers of the renewed parliament. According to Art. 87 of the draft, the updated Supreme Council was to consist of two chambers: the State Duma and the Federal Assembly. As a name not for one of the chambers, but for the parliament as a whole, the concept “Federal Assembly” was used in the Presidential draft of the new Constitution of the Russian Federation, prepared by S.S. Alekseev, S.M. Shakhrai and presented at the first meeting of the Constitutional Conference in May 1993. However, the legal basis for the real, practical creation of the Federal Assembly as the highest representative institution, the national parliament of the country was created by the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of September 21, 1993 “On step-by-step constitutional reform in the Russian Federation " The decree was of decisive importance in the practical implementation of the proposals for the Federal Assembly.
The Decree stated: “To interrupt the exercise of legislative, administrative and control functions by the Congress of People's Deputies and the Supreme Council of the Russian Federation” and proposed to establish a new bicameral parliament - the Federal Assembly, consisting of the Federation Council and the State Duma.
I was interested in learning about the development of parliamentarism in Russia and comparing the Tsarist Duma with the current one. After all, it was the State Duma of the early twentieth century that was an important factor in political development and influenced many areas of political life. As you know, the main task of historical science is to, based on an objective analysis of identified factors, give an optimal forecast for the development of a particular phenomenon, and reveal the causes of certain phenomena in the present.
1 Concept, characteristics of parliaments, their classification
In accordance with the Constitution of the Russian Federation on December 12, 1993: “The Federal Assembly - the Parliament of Russia - is the representative and legislative body of the Russian Federation” (Article 94).
Parliaments (legislatures), quasi-parliamentary institutions - as bodies that simultaneously carry out the functions of representing society and, at the same time, legislative functions - have been created in the vast majority of states of the modern world, regardless of the form of government and political regime: not only in constitutional, but also in absolute monarchies ; not only under democratic, but also emergency, military and revolutionary regimes. Experts believe that countries where there are no such institutions are rather an exception to the rule.
The official names used to designate the highest bodies of legislative power ... are extremely varied. As N. S. Krylova, a well-known Russian expert on constitutional law of foreign countries, writes: “The term “parliament” is most often used. The classic example is the British Parliament. Some constitutions use the term "legislature". Other names are also common: Federal Assembly in Switzerland, Congress - in the USA, Storting - in Norway, Althing - in Iceland, Cortes General - in Spain, Knesset - in Israel, People's Assembly - in Egypt, Supreme Council (Rada) - in Ukraine , National People's Congress1, etc. In Russia, as we see, according to the formula of the 1993 Constitution of the Russian Federation, a “double” name is used: Federal Assembly - the Parliament of Russia.
The term "parliament" comes from a Latin word and literally means "talking room", "interview", "serious conversation". The term "legislature" also comes from the Latin word "lex" - law. The first ancestors of parliaments appeared in the 12th-13th centuries. - Spanish Cortes and English Parliament. The expression “parliament” itself came into use around the same time. In England, which is considered the birthplace of parliament (where the first use of the concept of "parliament" arose), the word was originally used to name the afternoon conversation of monarchs. Later, this word in England began to mean any meetings with monarchs, and even later, periodic interviews (consultations) of the king with magnates “on the great affairs of the kingdom”2. At the same time, as the famous Russian statesman and professor of constitutional law A. A. Mishin noted: already in the XII-XIII centuries. Most often, the word “parliament” “means a permanent council of statesmen and judges, which received petitions, considered complaints and generally regulated the administration of justice.”3 Thus, historically, the concept of parliament has undergone significant evolution. Along with England, estate (estate-representative) institutions limiting the power of the monarch, but somewhat later in time arose in Poland, Hungary, France, Spain and other countries, where they also, in the process of evolution and revolutions, developed into representative institutions of the modern type or were replaced them.4
However, the models of legislative institutions operating in modern states are not homogeneous; not all of them are parliaments. In particular, the legislative bodies of socialist states are not parliamentary-type entities. Thus, the bodies of state (legislative) power in the USSR and the RSFSR were not parliaments. Moreover, as one of the authors of the well-known series of textbooks “Constitutional (state) law of foreign countries” B. A. Strashun and V. A. Ryzhov note: “The socialist concept of state and democracy avoided even the term “parliament”, because the founders of Marxism-Leninism , especially by V.I. Lenin, this institution was denounced on all sides as a virtually powerless talking shop designed to “deceive the common people”5. The National People's Congress, the legislative body in the People's Republic of China, is not a parliament either, since “in reality, the decisions of such bodies only give state formality to the decisions of narrow governing bodies (the Politburo, central committees) of the communist parties. Finally, “in developing countries, especially in Africa and Asia, parliaments, even in cases where they are formally built on the model of developed Western countries, in fact are usually also powerless, register the decisions of extra-parliamentary centers of genuine power,” i.e. they are not parliamentary entities according to its essence6. In all of these cases, the use of the term “parliament” to designate the highest representative body is possible only for the purposes of practical convenience, as an element of technology, but in essence such word usage is very conditional.7
A qualifying feature of parliament is that, as in court, in the activities of parliament, unlike executive authorities, the rules of due process must be strictly observed. Such a specific procedural form of parliamentary activity is the legislative process, all stages of which are clearly described in the law (parliamentary rules of procedure), and the most important stages - legislative initiative, voting on a bill - are, as a rule, defined in the state constitution. The legislative function is the main, but not the only function of parliaments. Along with legislative functions, parliaments also carry out control functions. The minimum parliamentary control is budgetary and financial control.
Different scientific positions reflect different ways of defining the scope and nature of the legislative competence of parliaments and indicate the need to distinguish between the concepts of “relatively limited competence” and “relatively defined competence”. Therefore, along with the three mentioned above, we can talk about another, fourth, model of organizing parliaments - about parliaments with relatively defined competence. The differentiation of parliaments into such types as: with absolutely unlimited, absolutely limited and relatively limited competence takes into account the difference in the scope of competence of parliaments. And the identification of parliaments with relatively specific competence is associated with a new idea - about the situationally and over time changing boundaries of parliamentary competence. Therefore, the same state can fall into different classification groups (for example, both the third and the fourth).
Parliaments with relatively defined competence are characterized by the following features. With this model of parliamentary organization, at least three lists of powers in the legislative sphere are enshrined in the state constitution: the Federation, its subjects, and the third sphere - joint jurisdiction or competing competence. On this third list of issues, laws can be issued by both the federal parliament and the parliaments of the constituent entities of the federation. Thus, the federal Parliament has not only a sphere of its exclusive jurisdiction, but also a sphere of legislative powers, which it shares with the parliaments of the constituent entities of the Federation. Hence the “sliding” relative certainty of the competence of both the federal parliament and the parliaments of the constituent entities of the Federation.
2 History of the formation of parliamentarism in pre-revolutionary Russia
In January-February 1905, the first Russian revolution began in Russia (1905-1907). It demonstrated that the autocratic period in the history of the Russian state is ending and the period of practical constitutionalization and parliamentarization of the country begins. The first, initially moderate steps towards parliamentarization were associated with the adoption by Nicholas II of documents dated August 6, 1905: “The Highest Manifesto on the Establishment of the State Duma”, “The Law on the Establishment of the State Duma” and “Regulations on Elections to the State Duma”. However, these acts established the status of the State Duma as a legislative advisory body under the monarch. As experts note: “The manifesto on the establishment of the Duma announced that the highest state institutions would include a special legislative institution,” but at the same time, “... the Basic Law of the Russian Empire on the essence of autocratic power remains inviolable”8. In addition, the documents of August 6, 1905 on the elections contained a lot of restrictions and qualification requirements that prevented wide circles of Russian society from taking part even in such a powerless State Duma.
The State Council was supposed to function in tandem with the State Duma. The status of a legislative body under the monarch was given to the State Council on the date of its creation - in 1810. The manifesto of August 6, 1905 only confirmed this status of the State Council.
The starting point for the formation of parliamentarism in Russia was the Highest Manifesto, signed by Tsar Nicholas II on October 17, 1905 “On the improvement of public order” and a number of acts developing the provisions of the Manifesto and also approved by the emperor’s decrees of December 1905-1906: Decree of December 11 1905 “On changing the Regulations on elections to the State Duma (dated August 6, 1905) and the legislation issued in addition to it”, Manifesto of February 20, 1906 “On changing the establishment of the State Council and on revising the establishment of the State Duma”, Decree of February 20, 1906 “Establishment of the State Duma” (new edition), etc.
The rights in legislative activities of not only the State Duma, but also the State Council were expanded. The State Council, like the State Duma, was also vested with legislative, rather than advisory, powers. Characterizing the organization of the State Duma and the State Council of Russia in the model of the Manifesto of October 17, 1905 and the Decrees of Nicholas II of February 20, 1906... “many experts express the opinion that they were, as it were, chambers of the Bicameral Parliament, that the Manifesto and Decrees of February 20, 1906 “turned the State Council, essentially, into the second chamber of the Russian parliament.”9 Although this cannot be said with absolute categoricality, since officially these were two independent state bodies.
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In accordance with the Highest Manifesto “On changing the establishment of the State Council and revising the establishment of the State Duma” (dated February 20, 1906), the principles of the formation of the State Council were radically changed: if previously “it consisted mainly of elderly dignitaries of the empire who had retired from active state activities “10 then, according to the Decree of February 20, the transformed State Council consisted of two categories of members: not only those appointed by the monarch, but also elected. There were five categories of elected members of the State Council: elected by the Synod from the Orthodox clergy (6 members); elected from the Academy of Sciences and universities (6 members); elected representatives from industry and trade (12 people); elected from each provincial zemstvo assembly (1 member); elected from noble societies (18 members)11. The addition of an elected part to the State Council provided it with the quality of a body of social representation. In this regard, let us pay attention, however, that the chairman of the State Council was appointed by the emperor from the unelected part of the members of the Council (Article 3 of Chapter I of the Emperor’s Decree of February 20, 1906 “0 reorganization of the establishment of the State Council”).
Changes were also made to the State Duma election procedure. In pursuance of the Manifesto I October 7, 1905, in 1905 - 1906. a number of decrees were issued that introduced significant changes and additions to the Election Regulations of August 6, 1905. The most important among them was the royal decree of December 11, 1905 “On amending the Regulations on elections to the State Duma and the legislation issued in addition to it” . In fact, the Regulations of December 11, 1905 became the second (after the Regulations of August 6, 1905) legislative act on the electoral procedure, in accordance with which “elections to the First and Second State Dumas were held.”12
According to experts (0. I. Chistyakov): “The new law did not differ from the previous one in any significant way.”13 Significant restrictions on the principle of universal suffrage still remained: as in the Regulations of August 6, 1905, property qualifications were fixed for elections Women, young people under 25, military personnel and people leading a nomadic lifestyle were not allowed. The decree of December 11, 1905 also provided for a curial system of elections, separating each estate into an independent curia. However, the innovation was that to the three curiae (landowner, urban and peasant), another one was added - the workers' curia. Similar to the Regulations on the Elections of August 6, and the Decree of December 11, 1905, unequal standards of representation from the curiae were consolidated: the advantage of the curiae of large landowners and the large urban bourgeoisie was ensured. According to O. I. Chistyakov’s calculations: “... one vote of the landowner was equal to three votes of peasants and forty-five votes of working voters.”14
Nevertheless, large representation in the State Duma was also ensured for the peasantry (45% of seats in the Duma)15, which was explained primarily by socio-demographic reasons, since the peasantry made up a significant part of the Russian population of that period. As O.I. Chistyakov notes: while allowing broad representation of the peasantry in the State Duma, “the authors of the electoral laws were... in error: they hoped for the conservative and monarchical attitudes of the peasantry. Count A.A. Bobrinsky, in harmony with some other participants in the Peterhof meetings, said: “All the waves of eloquence of the advanced elements will break against the stable wall of conservative peasants.” The history of the First and Second State Dumas refuted these illusions.”16
The regulations on elections to the State Duma, approved by the Decree of Nicholas II of December 11, 1905, as well as the Regulations of August 6, 1905, provided for multi-level elections, and a different number of levels was established for each curia. The following were preserved: two-level elections for large landowners and bourgeois and four-level elections for peasants; For the new electoral curia - the workers - three-stage elections were introduced.
Many modern experts note that the system of relations between the State Council and the State Duma was built on the model of organizing the upper and lower houses of a bicameral parliament, although the formally analyzed legislation provided for equal rights of the Duma and the Council.17
Signs of the State Council as the “upper house” of parliament 11 were revealed in its following powers:
Bills adopted by the State Duma acquired the force of law only after their approval by the State Council;
The State Council had the right of veto over bills adopted by the Duma. This “veto” did not need confirmation from the emperor: the decisions of the Duma rejected by the State Council were not presented to the tsar; that is, the “veto” of the State Council was absolute (in this regard, the State Council exceeded the level of powers of the upper houses of classical parliaments);
It was the chairman of the State Council (and not the chairman of the Duma) who introduced bills adopted by both chambers at the discretion of the emperor (Article 14 of Chapter II of the Decree of February 29, 1906 “On the reorganization of the establishment of the State Council”).
As for the powers of the Russian parliament itself - the State Duma, they were limited to: firstly, the State Council; secondly, in terms of subject matter. Thus, in accordance with the Decree of February 20, 1906 “Establishment of the State Duma” (Chapter V), the Duma did not have the authority to implement constitutional reform: it did not have the right “even to raise the issue of changing the Basic State Laws”18. Among the most important powers of the State Duma (in the model of acts of February 20, 1906), O. I. Chistyakov notes: “budgetary rights, as well as some issues related to the construction of railways and the establishment of joint-stock companies and the right of Duma deputies to make requests to representatives of the administration."19
The pinnacle of development of legislation on the State Duma, established under the pressure of the first Russian revolution of 1905-1907. The Basic State Laws of the Russian Empire of April 23, 1906, approved by the Decree of Nicholas II, also became. Now the circle of supporters of the position is expanding that the Basic State Laws of April 23, 1906 can be qualified as the first Russian Constitution - although they were not officially called a constitution.
The Basic State Laws formulated the concept of Parliament, “built-in” into a specific mechanism of “separation of powers”. The peculiarity of this mechanism of “separation of powers” stemmed from the fact that the Constitution itself was granted (octroied) by the Russian Emperor on April 23, 1906, so it did not deny the principle of autocracy.
In the basic state laws of April 1906, an attempt was made to combine the principle of autocracy with the principle of “separation of powers”:
Thus, the preamble of the Basic State Laws of 1906 spoke of the delimitation of the area belonging to the monarch “inseparably the power of the supreme government from the legislative power” (Part 3 of the preamble). Obviously, here we are talking about the distinction between constituent and legislative powers.
In the preamble and in Art. 4 of the Basic State Laws it was said about the “supreme autocratic power” that belongs inseparably to the emperor (the power of supreme state administration).
In the preamble and in Art. 7 also called “legislative power”, which is exercised by the “sovereign-emperor... in unity with the State Council and the State Duma.”
Thus, the monarch confirmed that he renounces the monopoly in legislative activity and recognizes the State Council and the State Duma as two more legislative bodies to which he transfers part of his powers in the legislative sphere.
In addition to participating in the parliamentary legislative process, the monarch, according to the Basic State Laws of April 23, 1906, had the authority to make independent laws. We note two aspects here. Firstly, as indicated, the Basic State Laws (i.e., constitutional laws) were subject to change only at the “initiative” (initiative) of the emperor. Secondly, the monarch, in individual cases, could issue normative acts (decrees) on issues within the competence of parliamentary regulation. However, this rule-making activity of the emperor could only be carried out “during the cessation of the State Duma” caused by emergency circumstances. In addition, acts of rule-making activity of the monarch on issues falling under the jurisdiction of Parliament had to be confirmed by the State Duma after the resumption of its work, otherwise their effect was terminated. Thus, the Russian monarch, in accordance with the Basic State Law of April 23, 1906, retained fairly broad powers, although in the sphere of exercising legislative power they were no longer absolute, but limited.
As for the mechanisms of their formation, these legislative bodies differed from each other. The State Council consisted of two categories of persons: up to 1/2 of its composition were “members by highest appointment”, at least 1/2 were members of the Council by choice (Article 58 of the Basic State Laws). Fixed terms of stay in the State Council were not established. The State Duma was formed only from members elected by the population of the Russian Empire; The duration of their registration was set at 5 years (Article 59). The elected members of the State Council and the State Duma in its entirety could be dissolved before the expiration of their term of office (Articles 62, 63). The Basic State Laws did not establish on what grounds the monarch had the right to dissolve elected legislative bodies. That is, theoretically, he could do this completely arbitrarily. The monarch's arbitrariness on the issue of early termination of the powers of elected members of the State Council and the State Duma was limited only by his duty to issue a decree calling new elections to these bodies.
3 History of the formation of the Soviet system as bodies of state power in socialist Russia
In their historical development, the Soviets went through two main stages. The Soviets first emerged as a mass political organization of working people - this was the period of the first Russian revolution of 1905 - 1907. The first Soviets arose as organs of the strike struggle of the proletariat, as Soviets of Workers' Deputies, that is, they were created mainly on the production principle. The Soviets led the armed uprising of the proletariat against the autocracy. According to the definition of the founder of the Soviet socialist state, V.I. Lenin: “The Councils of Workers’ Deputies of 1905, despite all their infancy, spontaneity, lack of formalization, vagueness in composition and functioning, acted as power,” through the Soviets the proletariat exercised its hegemony in the first Russian revolution. However, while leading the revolution of 1905 - 1907. The councils of workers' deputies increasingly grew into organs of general revolutionary struggle, since they put forward the goals of not only the proletarian, but also the bourgeois-democratic revolution: not only the demand for an 8-hour working day, but also for a democratic republic; universal, equal, direct suffrage by secret ballot.
The second stage in the development of the Soviets was the period from February to October 1917. In the very first days of the February revolution, the Soviets re-emerged as bodies of revolutionary power. Unlike the Soviets of 1905, which were created only in large cities and industrial centers, the Soviets of 1905 began to be formed everywhere. Not only the Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, but also the Soviets of Peasants' Deputies became widespread. A new phenomenon in the development of the Soviet form was the creation of territorial associations of Soviets, organized on the scale of individual territorial units.
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Another step in the formation of the Soviets in February - October 1917 was associated with the creation of their All-Russian associations, as a result of which two centers for organizing the Soviets were established. On May 4-28, 1917, the unification of the Soviets of Peasant Deputies on an All-Russian scale took place: the first All-Russian Congress of Peasant Deputies took place in Petrograd. It elected the Executive Committee of the All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Peasant Deputies (VTsIK). And on June 3-4, 1917, also in Petrograd, the first All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies was held, which elected its All-Russian Central Executive Committee. Of decisive importance for the prospect of transforming the Soviets from revolutionary public organizations into bodies of state power in Russia during the socialist period was the fact of strengthening the position of the Bolshevik Communist Party (RCP(b)) of Russia in the Soviets. It didn't happen right away. Thus, at the First All-Russian Congress of Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies (June 1917), the majority were Socialist Revolutionaries and Mensheviks. At the Extraordinary (November 10-25, 1917) and the Second All-Russian (November 26-December 10, 1917) Congresses of Peasant Deputies, the majority of deputies were representatives from the Socialist Revolutionaries (left, right Socialist Revolutionaries and centrist Socialist Revolutionaries). The decisive step towards the Bolshevization of the Soviets was the Second All-Russian Congress of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies. It began its work on October 25, 1917. In parallel with the practical testing of the idea of the Soviets, the practice of the idea of the Constituent Assembly also developed. But in the elections to the Constituent Assembly, the Bolsheviks did not have such high success; the Socialist Revolutionaries enjoyed more support. But in the elections to the Constituent Assembly held on November 12, 1917, 58% of all voters voted “for” the Socialist Revolutionaries, 27.6% for the Socialist Democrats (of which 25% were for the Bolsheviks, 2.6% for the Mensheviks), for cadets - 13% .20
In this regard, immediately after the elections to the Constituent Assembly on December 2, 1917, V.I. Lenin for the first time declared the preference of the Soviets rather than the Constituent Assembly. The reason is easy to see: because the RSDLP (b) had an advantage in the All-Russian Central Executive Committee of the Soviets of Workers' and Soldiers' Deputies, but found itself in the minority in the Constituent Assembly. To recognize the Constituent Assembly meant for her to transfer power to another party. In a speech on December 2, 1917, V.I. Lenin stated: “The Soviets are above all parties, all Constituent Assemblies.”21 Opposition parties demonstrated a readiness to compromise. Thus, at the congress of the Socialist Revolutionary Party - the Socialist Revolutionary Party (SRP), held from November 6 to December 5, 1917, a resolution was adopted on the Socialist Revolutionary model of Russian democracy in the form of a combination of the Constituent Assembly and Soviets. At the Congress “it was emphasized that the Soviets must be strengthened as powerful class organizations of the working people. The role of the Socialist Revolutionary Party as a constructive opposition force in relation to the ruling regime was also defined. During the work of the Constituent Assembly, it was intended to counter the Bolshevik method of issuing “impossible promises” with the tactics of serious legislative creativity.”22
On January 5, 1918, the first (and last) meeting of the Constituent Assembly opened. It adopted the law on land and the decree on peace and government, which proclaimed Russia the Russian Democratic Federative Republic. The Constituent Assembly refused to discuss the Bolshevik-proposed “Declaration of the Rights of the Working and Exploited People” (written by Lenin). As a result, even before any other discussions, the Bolsheviks left the Tauride Palace. And “in the morning, an armed guard asked the delegates to leave the meeting room. The meeting was dissolved."23
Thus, the Soviets received the prospect of becoming the only bodies of representative power in Russia. After the dissolution of the Constituent Assembly, measures were taken to unite the city and village Soviets. First, the Central Executive Committees of the two types of Councils were united into a single All-Russian Executive Committee of Councils. And on January 23 (13), 1918, the united All-Russian Congress of Workers', Soldiers' and Peasants' Deputies took place. In the same way, the regional, provincial and district Soviets united. As a result, a unified system of Soviets of workers, soldiers and peasants' deputies arose.
4 History of the establishment of the Federal Assembly as the Parliament of the Russian Federation of the post-Soviet post-socialist period
The concept of “Federal Assembly” was first used in the draft Constitution of the Russian Federation prepared by the Constitutional Commission created by the First Congress of People's Deputies (known as O. Rumyantsev's project), where the Federal Assembly was understood as one of the chambers of the renewed parliament. According to Art. 87 of the draft, the updated Supreme Council was to consist of two chambers: the State Duma and the Federal Assembly.24 As the name not of one of the chambers, but of the parliament as a whole, the concept “Federal Assembly” was used in the Presidential draft of the new Constitution of the Russian Federation, prepared by S. S. Alekseev , S. M. Shakhrai25 and presented at the first meeting of the Constitutional Conference in May 1993. However, the legal basis for the real, practical creation of the Federal Assembly as the highest representative institution, the national parliament of the country was created by the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of September 21, 1993 “On the phased constitutional reform in the Russian Federation." The decree was of decisive importance in the practical implementation of the proposals for the Federal Assembly.
The Decree stated: “To interrupt the exercise of legislative, administrative and control functions by the Congress of People’s Deputies and the Supreme Council of the Russian Federation” and proposed to establish a new bicameral parliament - the Federal Assembly, consisting of the Federation Council and the State Duma.26
The status of the Federation Council and the State Duma was initially regulated by the “Regulations on Federal Authorities for the Transitional Period,” which was put into effect by the said Presidential Decree of September 21, 1993 (No. 1400).27
However, the Federation Council on the date of adoption of the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of September 21, 1993 was actually a functioning institution. Therefore, with regard to the Federation Council, the novelty was that its status was transformed, now it was given the quality of the House of Parliament. Thus, the State Duma was to become a completely new institution. The Decree stated: “Give the Federation Council the functions of the chamber of the Federal Assembly of the Russian Federation with all the powers provided for by the Regulations “On Federal Bodies of Government for the Transitional Period.” Establish that the implementation of these provisions begins by the Federation Council after elections to the State Duma are held.”
So, the Federation Council, unlike the State Duma, began its existence not as a chamber of the Federal Assembly, but as an independent body. The first mention of the Federation Council appeared in the Resolution of the Presidium of the Supreme Soviet of the RSFSR “On the Federative Treaty” dated July 17, 1990.28 According to this Resolution, to implement the decisions of the First Congress of People's Deputies, to profoundly transform the entire Russian Federation and to organize work on the preparation of the Federative Treaty between the RSFSR and its subjects, among other measures, planned the creation of a Federation Council “in the number of 63 people consisting of the Chairman of the Supreme Council of the RSFSR, chairmen of the Supreme Councils of the autonomous republics, chairmen of the Councils of People's Deputies (SND) of autonomous regions and autonomous districts and 31 representatives from territories, regions and cities of republican subordination, determined by the Chairman of the Supreme Council of the RSFSR."
On January 30, 1991, the Resolution of the Presidium of the Supreme Council of the RSFSR “On the Regulations of the Federation Council of the RSFSR”29 was issued, in which the Federation Council was defined as a slightly narrower board, including: the Chairman of the Supreme Council of the RSFSR (Chairman of the Federation Council), Chairmen of the Supreme Councils of the republics included members of the RSFSR, chairmen of the SND of autonomous regions and districts, regional, regional, Moscow and Leningrad city SND “The resolution also stated that: “The Federation Council is a coordinating body. The main directions of his activity: establishment and development of federal relations; discussion of the most important bills in the field of government and interethnic relations; identification and coordination of the main directions of socio-economic policy; development of a common position in relation to the Union Treaty; ensuring the participation of the subjects of the Federation in the implementation of constitutional provisions on the national-state structure of the RSFSR; development of recommendations for resolving interethnic and territorial disputes; giving specific conclusions on the inclusion of new entities in Federative relations.”
On October 23, 1992, the Order of the President of the Russian Federation was issued on the creation of an even narrower board of the Council of Heads of Republics, i.e., it included only heads of republics. It said: “Accept the proposal of the heads of the republics on the formation of the Council of Heads of the Republics, chaired by the President of the Russian Federation, in order to develop the basic principles for the implementation of the Federal Treaty and public administration of the Russian Federation on the basis of its new Constitution, agreed decisions to ensure the territorial integrity and state independence of Russia.”30 It was approved Regulations on the Council of Heads of Republics and Regulations of the Council of Heads of Republics.
The proposal of the President of the Russian Federation to abolish the Congress and the Supreme Council and transition to a new parliament, set out in the Decree of September 21, 1993, was accepted during the preparation of the draft of the new Constitution of the Russian Federation, adopted in a referendum on December 12, 1993.
The Constitution of the Russian Federation on December 12, 1993 states that the parliament of Russia is the Federal Assembly, consisting of two chambers - the Federation Council and the State Duma.
Conclusion
In conclusion, the following conclusions can be drawn:
The official names used to designate the highest bodies of legislative power are extremely diverse. As N. S. Krylova, a well-known Russian expert on constitutional law of foreign countries, writes: “The term “parliament” is most often used. The classic example is the British Parliament. Some constitutions use the term "legislature". Other names are also common: Federal Assembly in Switzerland, Congress - in the USA, Storting - in Norway, Althing - in Iceland, Cortes General - in Spain, Knesset - in Israel, People's Assembly - in Egypt, Supreme Council (Rada) - in Ukraine , National People's Congress, etc. In Russia, as we see, according to the formula of the 1993 Constitution of the Russian Federation, a “double” name is used: Federal Assembly, Parliament of Russia.
However, the models of legislative institutions operating in modern states are not homogeneous; not all of them are parliaments. In particular, the legislative bodies of socialist states are not parliamentary-type entities. Thus, the bodies of state (legislative) power in the USSR and the RSFSR were not parliaments. Moreover, as one of the authors of the well-known series of textbooks “Constitutional (state) law of foreign countries” B. A. Strashun and V. A. Ryzhov note: “The socialist concept of state and democracy avoided even the term “parliament”, because the founders of Marxism-Leninism , especially by V.I. Lenin, this institution was denounced on all sides as a virtually powerless talking shop designed to “cheat the common people.” The National People's Congress, the legislative body in the People's Republic of China, is not a parliament either, since “in reality, the decisions of such bodies only give state formality to the decisions of narrow governing bodies (the Politburo, central committees) of the communist parties. Finally, “in developing countries, especially in Africa and Asia, parliaments, even in cases where they are formally built on the model of developed Western countries, in fact are usually also powerless, register the decisions of extra-parliamentary centers of genuine power,” i.e. they are not parliamentary entities according to its essence. In all of these cases, the use of the term “parliament” to designate the highest representative body is possible only for the purposes of practical convenience, as an element of technology, but in essence such word usage is very conditional.
The concept of “Federal Assembly” was first used in the draft Constitution of the Russian Federation prepared by the Constitutional Commission created by the First Congress of People's Deputies (known as O. Rumyantsev's project), where the Federal Assembly was understood as one of the chambers of the renewed parliament. According to Art. 87 of the draft, the updated Supreme Council was to consist of two chambers: the State Duma and the Federal Assembly.
Continuation
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The status of the Federation Council and the State Duma was initially regulated by the “Regulations on Federal Authorities for the Transitional Period,” which was put into effect by the said Presidential Decree of September 21, 1993 (No. 1400).
However, the Federation Council on the date of adoption of the Decree of the President of the Russian Federation of September 21, 1993 was actually a functioning institution. Therefore, with regard to the Federation Council, the novelty was that its status was transformed, now it was given the quality of the House of Parliament. Thus, the State Duma was to become a completely new institution.
Bibliography
Hesse K. Fundamentals of constitutional law of Germany. M., 1994. P. 90.
Ostrogorsky M. L. Democracy and political parties. T. II. M... 20080. P. 252.
Yudin Yu.A. Political parties and law in a modern state. M.: 1998
Foreign legislation on political pariahs. P. 151.
Essays on parliamentary law (foreign experience). M., 1993.
Gazette of the Congress of People's Deputies of the RSFSR and the Supreme Council of the RSFSR. 1990. No. 2. Art. 22.
Gazette of the Congress of People's Deputies of the RSFSR and the Supreme Council of the RSFSR. 1991. No. 35. Art. 1164.
Federal Law “On Political Parties” dated July 11, 2007
Reforming Russia: myths and reality. M, 1994. P. 54
Golovkov A. Russian political theater: without extras there are no soloists // Izvestia. 1996. March 2
First Lady in a Robe // Figures and Faces. Supplement to Nezavisimaya Gazeta. 1998. March No. 5. P.10.
Collection of acts of the President and Government of the Russian Federation. 1993. No. 41. Article 3907
Electoral law: materials for discussion. M, 1993.
Vedeneev Yu. Political parties in the electoral process // Trust. 1995. No. 3-4. P. 10.
Power and democracy. Foreign scientists about political science. M., 1992. P.96.
Elections to the State Duma. M., 1995. P. 33
Collection of legislation of the Russian Federation. 1997. No. 38.
Test on the topic:
Option 1
The proposal to organize a procession to the Tsar in January 1905 was put forward by: a) Milyukov b) Guchkov c) Gapon d) Chernov
A) convene the State Duma; b) provide peasants with land; c) adopt the Constitution; d) establish democracy in Russia
3. the social meaning of Stolypin’s agrarian reform was to: a) disperse peasants into farmsteads; b) create a wide layer of small and medium-sized owners; c) distract the peasants from the revolution; d) develop and populate underdeveloped territories.
A) preservation of landownership;
C) strengthening communal land tenure;
A) V.I. Lenin 1. KDP
B) P.N. Milyukov 2. P.S.R.
C) L. Martov 3. RSDLP (b)
D) A. I. Guchkov 4. RSDLP (m)
G) V. M. Chernov
6. Determine which party owned the following solution to the agrarian question: “Redemption at the expense of the state and transfer of part of the landowners’ lands to the peasants”? A) KDP B) P.S.R.
7. Which party resolved the issue of government structure as follows: “A socialist republic with the right of nations to self-determination through the dictatorship of the proletariat”?
8. Which party used terror as a method of struggle? A) KDP
10. Which State Duma was called “red”?
A) I Duma; B) II Duma; B) III Duma; D) IV Duma
Test on the topic:
“Russian multi-party system and parliamentarism of the early twentieth century”
Option 2
the workers' petition, which they carried on January 9, 1905, contained demands: a) economic and political; b) economic; B) political; d) household plan.
Russians first received freedom of speech, press, and street processions: a) February 19, 1861; b) after the overthrow of the king; c) after the October Revolution of 1917; d) October 17, 1905
4. the social meaning of Stolypin’s agrarian reform was to: a) disperse peasants into farmsteads; b) create a wide layer of small and medium-sized owners; c) distract the peasants from the revolution; d) develop and populate underdeveloped territories.
5. Distribute party leaders:
A) G. V. Plekhanov 1. KDP
B) P.N. Milyukov 2. P.S.R.
B) A. I. Guchkov 3. RSDLP (b)
D) L. Martov 4. RSDLP (m)
E) V. M. Chernov 6. Union of the Russian People
G) V. I. Lenin
6. Determine which party owned the following solution to the agrarian question: “Socialization of the land”
A) KDP B) P.S.R. B) RSDLP (b)
7. Which party resolved the issue of government structure as follows: “Constitutional monarchy or republic, self-government for Poland and Finland, cultural autonomy for other peoples of the empire”?
8. Which party used pogroms as a method of struggle? A) KDP
10. Which State Duma had the majority of cadets?
Test on the topic:
“Russian multi-party system and parliamentarism of the early twentieth century”
Option 3
The proposal to organize a procession to the Tsar in January 1905 was put forward by: a) Chernov b) Gapon c) Guchkov d) Milyukov
A) provide peasants with land; b) convene the State Duma; c) establish democracy in Russia d) adopt a Constitution;
3. the social meaning of Stolypin’s agrarian reform was to: a) create a wide layer of small and medium-sized owners; b) develop and populate underdeveloped territories. c) distract the peasants from the revolution; d) disperse peasants to farms;
4. The Stolypin agrarian reform actually provided for
A) strengthening communal land tenure;
B) abolition of landownership;
C) preservation of landownership;
D) transfer of arable land for rent.
5. Distribute party leaders:
A) V. M. Chernov 1. KDP
B) L. Martov 2. P.S.R.
C) P. N. Milyukov 3. RSDLP (b)
D) A. I. Guchkov 4. RSDLP (m)
E) V. M. Purishkevich 6. Union of the Russian People
G) V. I. Lenin
6. Determine which party owned the following solution to the agrarian question: “Liquidation of the peasant community”
A) KDP B) P.S.R. B) RSDLP (b)
7. Which party solved the issue of government structure as follows: “Democratic republic of the federal type”?
8. Which party proposed the dictatorship of the proletariat as a transition to a republic? A) KDP B) P.S.R. B) RSDLP; D) Union of the Russian People; D) Union October 17
9. Decipher the abbreviation: A) KDP; B) RSDLP (b)
10. Which State Duma was not dissolved, but served its entire term? A) I Duma; B) II Duma; B) III Duma; D) IV Duma
“Russian multi-party system and parliamentarism of the early twentieth century”
Option 4
The workers' petition, which they carried on January 9, 1905, contained demands for: a) a living plan; b) economic; B) economic and political; d) political
Russians first received freedom of speech, press, and street processions: a) February 19, 1861; b) after the overthrow of the king; c) November 9, 1906; d) October 17, 1905
The policy of accelerated destruction of the community is associated with:
A) with an attempt to create a class of small and medium-sized owners; b) with the severity of the agrarian question;
C) with accelerating the development of sparsely populated lands;
D) with the fact that the common life of the peasants makes the work of the revolutionaries easier.
4. The social meaning of Stolypin’s agrarian reform was to: a) create a wide layer of small and medium-sized owners; b) disperse the peasants among the farms; c) develop and populate underdeveloped territories; d) distract the peasants from the revolution;
5. Distribute party leaders:
A) L. Martov 1. KDP
B) V. M. Chernov 2. P.S.R.
C) P. N. Milyukov 3. RSDLP (b)
D) A. I. Guchkov 4. RSDLP (m)
E) G. V. Plekhanov 6. Union of the Russian People
G) V. I. Lenin
6. Determine which party owned the following solution to the agrarian question: “Transfer of land into the ownership of the state, which provides it for use by the peasants”
A) KDP B) P.S.R. B) RSDLP (b)
7. Which party solved the issue of government structure like this: “Constitutional monarchy. Unitary state"?
8. Which party used pogroms as a method of struggle? A) P.S.R.
9. Decipher the abbreviation: A) P.S.R.; B) RSDLP (m)
10. Which State Duma had a majority of leftist parties?
A) in the First Duma; B) in the Second Duma; B) in the Third Duma; D) in the IV Duma
Describe the program and activities of the RSDLP?
Describe the activities of the First State Duma.
Describe the program and activities of the KDP?
Describe the activities of the Second State Duma.
Describe the program and activities of P.S.R.?
Describe the reason, essence and results of the Stolypin reform (changes in forms of land use and land tenure)
Describe the activities of the Third State Duma.
Describe the reason, essence and results of the Stolypin reform (settlement policy)
Describe the activities of the IV State Duma.
(Crib)
n1.doc
The emergence of a multi-party systemin Russia
1. Name the features of the emergence of a multi-party system in the country:
A) earlier emergence of political parties compared to European countries;
B) socialist parties were the first to emerge;
C) the organization of political parties became possible solely thanks to the efforts of the intelligentsia;
D) a small number of political parties;
D) a significant number of political parties.
2. Pavel Arsky commented on the October 17 Manifesto:
The king got scared and issued a manifesto:
“Freedom for the dead! Those alive are under arrest!”
Prisons and bullets
The people were returned.
So they put an end to freedom.
According to his political views, the poet belonged to:
A) liberals;
B) Black Hundreds;
B) social democrats.
3. At the Second Congress of the RSDLP (1903), Lenin’s supporters were called “Bolsheviks”, since they:
A) had a numerical majority at the congress;
B) secured a majority in elections to the central bodies of the party;
B) dominated in the composition of grassroots party organizations.
4. The agricultural part of the RSDLP Program was revised in:
B) 1910
5. The project of “municipalization” of the land was put forward by:
A) Bolsheviks;
B) Mensheviks;
B) cadets.
6. The land “municipalization” program provided for:
A) nationalization of all land in the country;
B) confiscation of the landowner's land;
C) preservation of small peasant ownership of land;
D) transfer of land to the disposal of local authorities.
7. The Socialist Revolutionary program for the “socialization” of the land provided for:
A) withdrawal of land from commercial circulation;
B) distribution of land according to consumer or “labor” norm;
C) transfer of land into state ownership;
D) transfer of land to the disposal of peasant communities;
D) confiscation of the landowner's land.
8. The requirement for an 8-hour working day was not included in the program:
B) constitutional democratic party;
B) the Socialist Revolutionary Party.
9. The federal structure of the state demanded:
A) RSDLP;
B) constitutional democratic party.
10. The ideas and demands of the program of the constitutional democratic party were:
A) liquidation of autocracy;
B) limitation of autocracy by a parliamentary democratic body;
B) the right of nations to self-determination;
D) preservation of a united and indivisible Russia with the granting of autonomy to Poland and Finland;
D) introduction of democratic rights and freedoms.
11. The ideas and demands of the program of the “Union of the Russian People” were:
A) establishment of a constitutional monarchy;
B) preservation and strengthening of autocratic power;
B) Russia for Russians;
D) convocation of the State Duma;
D) the introduction of universal suffrage.
12. Name the leaders of the following parties:
A) constitutional-democratic;
B) socialist revolutionaries;
D) RSDLP;
D) "Union of the Russian People."
A) A. I. Guchkov; b) V. I. Ulyanov; c) P. N. Milyukov; d) A. I. Dubrovin; d) V. M. Chernov.
13. At the beginning of the 20th century. The victims of the Socialist Revolutionary terror were:
A) Governor General of Moscow, Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich;
B) Minister of Internal Affairs V.K. Plehve;
B) Governor General of St. Petersburg D. F. Trepov;
D) State Duma deputy M. Ya. Herzenshtein.
TEST b
Experience of Russian parliamentarism
1. On August 6, 1905, the regulations on the establishment of the legislative advisory Duma, developed in the Ministry of Internal Affairs, were published. The development of this bill was led by:
A) A. G. Bulygin;
B) P. A. Stolypin;
B) P. N. Durnovo.
2. The law on elections to the First State Duma was adopted:
A) women;
B) youth under 25 years of age;
C) workers of large industrial enterprises
Acceptance;
D) military personnel;
D) officials.
4. The principles characteristic of the Russian electoral system were:
A) direct participation in elections of the entire population;
B) equal participation in elections of the entire population;
B) curial election system;
D) multi-level election system.
5. Article 87 of the Basic Laws of the Russian Empire provided for the right of the emperor:
A) issue urgent laws during breaks between sessions of the Duma;
B) dissolve the Duma at its own discretion;
C) change the electoral law.
6. On February 20, 1906, the decree of Nicholas II on the transformation of the State Council was published. From now on this body:
A) was the upper legislative chamber;
B) exercised control over the activities of the State Duma;
C) controlled the execution of decisions of the State Duma.
7. By decree of February 20, 1906, the principle of staffing the State Council changed, namely:
A) the entire population of the country participated in his election;
B) only representatives of the noble class were allowed to participate in his elections;
C) half of the members of the State Council were elected by elite organizations, half were appointed by the emperor.
8. On April 16, 1905, S. Yu. Witte was dismissed from the post of Chairman of the Council of Ministers for the reason that he:
A) delayed the opening of the First State Duma in every possible way;
B) was going to become a Duma deputy;
C) assured Nicholas II that with the advent of the Duma, revolutionary protests would stop, but this did not happen.
9. Instead of S. Yu. Witte, the following was appointed to the post of Chairman of the Council of Ministers:
A) A. G. Bulygin;
B) I. L. Goremykin;
B) P. A. Stolypin.
10. The 1st State Duma worked with:
B) February 20, 1906 to June 3, 1907
11. In the First State Duma, the largest faction was:
A) Trudoviks;
B) monarchists;
B) cadets.
12. Elections to the First State Duma were boycotted by:
A) social democrats;
B) Social Revolutionaries;
B) monarchists.
13. The 1st State Duma was called the “Duma of People’s Hopes”, because:
A) its discovery in society was associated with Russia’s transition to parliamentarism;
B) the peasants hoped to receive from her hands
Landowner's land;
C) the people expected her to adopt a constitution.
14. “Project 104”, submitted to the First State Duma by the Labor Group on May 23, 1906, provided for:
A) immediate transfer of all land with its subsoil and waters into public ownership;
B) alienation of part of the landowners’ lands exceeding the “labor norm”;
C) creation of a “national land fund”;
D) immediate and complete destruction of private ownership of land;
E) providing land to everyone who wants to cultivate it with their labor;
E) allocation of land within the “labor norm”.
15. The reason for the dissolution of the First State Duma was:
A) the Duma “Address to the People” on the land issue;
B) the Duma’s decision to dismiss the government of I. L. Goremykin;
C) the murder of Duma deputies M. Ya. Herzenstein and G. B. Yollos.
16. After the dissolution of the First State Duma, some of the deputies, on the initiative of the cadet faction, gathered in Vyborg to develop an appeal to the population. They called on the people to:
A) passive resistance - not paying taxes, not performing military service;
B) armed uprising;
B) approval of government actions.
17. The II State Duma worked with:
B) June 3, 1907 to June 9, 1912
18. The largest faction in the Second State Duma was:
A) cadets;
B) Trudoviks;
B) social democrats.
19. The II State Duma was called “red” because:
A) representatives of all major revolutionary parties took part in its work;
B) she adopted a law on the partial alienation of landowners’ lands;
B) it met in the Red Hall of the Tauride Palace.
20. The events associated with the dissolution of the Second Duma and the publication of the new electoral law of June 3, 1907, were a coup d'etat because:
A) The Duma was dispersed with the help of the army;
B) the emperor did not have the right to dissolve the Duma;
C) the emperor did not have the right to change the electoral law without the consent of the Duma.
21. According to the electoral law of June 3, 1907, preference was given to:
A) landowners;
B) representatives of the bourgeois strata;
B) intelligentsia.
22. Boycotted the elections to the Third State Duma:
A) RSDLP;
B) Socialist Revolutionary Party;
B) monarchist party.
23. The party that received the largest number of seats in the Third State Duma was:
A) constitutional democratic;
B) “peaceful renewal”.
24. On July 26, 1914, a special meeting of the IV State Duma was held, at which the so-called holy alliance between the deputies was concluded. The main outcome of this meeting was that:
A) almost all deputies, with the exception of monarchists, voted against Russia’s entry into the world war;
B) deputies expressed no confidence in the government;
C) almost all deputies, with the exception of the Social Democrats, voted for the acceptance of war loans.
25. In November 1914, five deputies of the IV State Duma were arrested, contrary to parliamentary immunity. They represented the faction:
A) cadets;
B) Social Revolutionaries;
B) Bolsheviks.
26. Indicate the chairmen of the Duma:
A) F. A. Golovin; b) N. A. Khomyakov,
A. I. Guchkov, M. V. Rodzianko;
B) M. V. Rodzianko; d) S. A. Muromtsev.
TEST 7
RUSSIA IN 1900-1916
Economic development of Russia
1. At the beginning of the 20th century. The Russian Empire ranked first in the world in:
a) the volume of national income;
b) the rate of growth of national income;
c) industrial production per capita.
2. Characteristic features of the economic development of the Russian Empire at the beginning of the 20th century. were:
a) the leading role of state regulation in the economic life of the country;
b) widespread attraction of foreign capital;
c) significant scale of capital export from the country;
d) high level of concentration of production;
e) the predominance of industrial production over agricultural production.
3. The rapid monopolization of the Russian economy was explained:
a) the possibility of developing capitalism “in breadth”;
b) an initially high level of concentration of production;
c) the destructive nature of economic crises.
4. Russia’s special interest in attracting foreign capital was caused by:
a) excessively high government spending;
b) the predominance of the agricultural sector in the economy;
c) the desire to integrate into the world economy.
5. Characteristic features of the development of agriculture in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. were:
a) the predominance of communal peasant land ownership;
b) widespread development of farms;
c) peasant land shortage;
d) growth in the marketability of peasant farms;
e) agricultural overpopulation;
f) the rapid transition of landowners' farms to capitalist lines.
6. The Russian army was the largest in the world in terms of numbers, because:
a) Russia sought to gain territorial gains;
b) Russia was constantly threatened by neighboring states;
c) the geostrategic position of the country was vulnerable.
7. At the beginning of the 20th century. industry share in
national income was:
8. The share of the Russian population living at the beginning of the 20th century. in cities, equaled:
9. At the beginning of the 20th century. over 1 million people lived in:
a) St. Petersburg;
b) Moscow;
d) Odessa.
10. In Russia, foreign investors preferred to invest in:
a) agriculture;
b) light and food industry;
c) heavy industry.
11. Monetary reform in Russia was carried out in:
12. The main content of the monetary reform of S. Yu. Witte was:
a) a decrease in the gold content of the ruble (devaluation);
b) change in the nominal value of banknotes (denomination);
c) establishing the gold equivalent of the ruble.
13. Contemporaries called the “impoverishment of the center”:
a) the absence of rich mineral deposits in Central Russia;
b) low population growth in the central regions of Russia;
c) a decrease in the level of marketability of peasant farms in the central provinces of Russia.
14. The idea of introducing a wine monopoly in the country belonged to:
a) Nicholas II;
b) S. Yu. Witte;
c) P. A. Stolypin.
15. Tula Arms Plant:
a) was part of the Putilov Plants concern;
b) was the private property of the Knop family;
c) was a state enterprise.
16. The first tram line in Moscow was put into operation in:
17. Indicate which terms correspond to the following definitions:
a) the process of increasing the role of cities in the development of society, concentrating industry and population in them;
b) a society in which a high level of development of large-scale industrial production and corresponding social and political relations has been achieved;
c) a list (estimate) of the state’s monetary income and expenses for a certain period;
d) income received by the owner of the share, part of the profit of the joint-stock company;
e) long-term capital investments in sectors of the economy.
a) State budget; b) dividends; c) industrial society; d) investments; e) urbanization.
Political development of Russia
1. The main contradiction of the political system of the Russian Empire at the beginning of the 20th century. Was:
a) the contradiction between the executive and legislative powers;
b) the contradiction between the tendency to form a civil society and unlimited autocratic power;
c) the presence of disagreements within the government.
2. Executive body of the Russian Empire at the beginning of the 20th century. was called:
a) Council of Ministers;
c) Cabinet of Ministers.
3. The political demand put forward by the zemstvo community at that time boiled down to:
a) the introduction of people's representatives into government bodies;
b) the immediate adoption of a constitution in the country;
c) maintaining autocratic power.
4. “I am convinced that only our historically established autocracy can renew Russia” - these words belong to:
a) S. Yu. Witte;
b) P. N. Milyukov;
c) V. K. Plehve.
5. The perpetrator of the terrorist act against V.K. Plehve was:
a) E. S. Sozonov;
b) E. F. Azef;
c) P. V. Karpovich.
6. The post of Minister of Internal Affairs after the murder of V.K. Plehve was taken by:
a) S. Yu. Witte;
b) P. D. Svyatopolk-Mirsky;
c) P. A. Stolypin.
7. The main directions of the reform program proposed by P. D. Svyatopolk-Mirsky were:
a) destruction of the peasant community;
b) introduction of an 8-hour working day;
c) the introduction of elected representatives from zemstvos and cities into the State Council;
d) bringing peasants closer in rights to representatives of other classes;
e) expanding the scope of activity of zemstvos.
8. P. D. Svyatopolk-Mirsky, proclaiming a course towards cooperation between the authorities and zemstvos, set the goal:
a) turn Russia into a constitutional monarchy;
b) create popularity in liberal circles;
c) expand and strengthen the socio-political basis of the existing regime.
9. The government of Nicholas II at the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries. The following political steps have been taken towards Finland
a) providing her with complete independence;
b) the king arrogated to himself the right to issue laws for Finland without the consent of its Diet;
c) national military units were disbanded;
d) a manifesto was issued on the conduct of office work in state institutions in Russian;
e) the Governor General of Finland was granted emergency powers.
10. Indicate who the following statements belong to:
a) “If you don’t make liberal reforms, if you don’t satisfy the completely natural desires of everyone, then there will be changes, and already in the form of a revolution”;
b) “Why could they think that I would be a liberal? Now I can’t say this word”;
d) “... you don’t know the internal situation in Russia. To hold the revolution, we need a small, victorious war.”
a) S. Yu. Witte; b) V. K. Plehve; c) P. D. Svyatopolk-Mirsky; d) Nicholas II.
11. Indicate which terms correspond to the following definitions:
a) the fundamental law of the state, which determines its social and governmental structure, electoral system, principles of organization and activity of government and administrative bodies, fundamental rights and responsibilities of citizens;
b) a system of local all-estate self-government;
c) a set of highly developed social, economic, cultural, etc. institutions and interpersonal relations that exists outside the state and is protected from its interference, allowing the realization of the various needs and interests of members of society;
d) a form of government in which the supreme power in the state belongs to an elected representative body;
e) a form of government and a state headed by one person, whose power is primarily inherited.
a) Civil society; b) zemstvo; c) constitution; d) monarchy; d) republic.
Social structure
Russian Empire
1. Indicate the main feature of the social structure of Russian society at the beginning of the 20th century:
a) class division;
b) the presence of the main classes of traditional (feudal) and capitalist societies;
c) differentiation of the population along class lines.
2. Indicate which social groups belong to traditional, feudal (I), and which belong to capitalist (II) society:
a) peasants
e) philistinism;
f) merchants;
g) farming.
3. Characteristic features of the situation of the Russian proletariat at the beginning of the 20th century. were:
a) high concentration of workers in industrial enterprises;
b) low working hours;
c) a well-thought-out system of social benefits and guarantees;
d) lack of basic civil rights;
e) draconian system of fines.
a) peasants;
b) emigrants from Eastern countries;
c) intelligentsia.
5. Form logical pairs from the provisions below that are interconnected as cause and effect:
a) lack of labor legislation;
b) high concentration of labor;
c) poor technical equipment of enterprises;
d) mass discontent among workers.
6. The length of the working day for an adult man in factories in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. was:
a) 8 hours;
b) 11.5 hours;
c) 10 o'clock.
7. In refusing the workers’ demands to reduce the working hours, the government referred to:
a) the presence of a large number of days off per year, especially religious holidays;
b) low labor productivity;
c) difficult international situation.
8. Match names and facts:
a) A. I. Putilov;
b) S. T. Morozov;
c) P. M. Tretyakov;
d) N. I. Prokhorov;
d) A. L. Shanyavsky.
a) Grand Prix at the World Exhibition in Paris for caring for the welfare of workers; b) opening of a gallery of Russian realistic art in Moscow; c) material assistance to revolutionary organizations; d) opening of a people's university in Moscow; e) founding of the Russian-Asian Bank.
9. At the beginning of the century in Russia they called kulaks:
a) rural moneylenders;
b) wealthy peasants;
c) peasants who separated from the community.
10. The main tenant of the land at the beginning of the 20th century. performed:
a) peasants;
b) representatives of the bourgeoisie;
c) landowners.
11. Most of the landowners' farms by the beginning of the 20th century. never switched to bourgeois rails, because:
a) it required large capital, and the landowners did not have it;
b) Russian landowners did not have the necessary psychological attitudes;
c) semi-feudal exploitation of peasants remained in land relations.
12. Sharecropping is:
a) collective use of mowing meadows;
b) a type of lease in which the tenant pays the owner of the land with half of the harvest;
c) rental of agricultural machinery.
13. Indicate what rights government officials were deprived of at the beginning of the 20th century. :
a) participate in the activities of political parties;
b) engage in commercial and entrepreneurial activities;
c) own land;
d) marry foreigners.
14. Specify the terms that correspond to the following definitions:
a) a social group in pre-capitalist societies that has rights and obligations fixed by custom or law and inherited by inheritance;
b) large social groups that differ in their relationship to the means of production, in their role in the social organization of labor, in the methods of receiving and the amount of income;
c) persons who do not have a certain social status;
d) part of the population not in demand by production, a necessary element of the labor market.
a) Marginalized; b) reserve army of labor; c) class; d) classes.
First Russian Revolution
1. Contemporaries called the “highlight” of the first revolution the requirement:
a) 8-hour working day;
b) destruction of landownership;
c) the creation of bodies of popular representation in the country.
2. On January 29, 1905, by a special imperial decree, a commission was formed under the leadership of S. I. Shidlovsky, which received the task:
a) study the reasons that led to the shooting of the peaceful demonstration of workers on January 9, 1905, and punish those responsible for the tragedy;
b) prepare a decree on the transfer of part of the landowners' lands to the peasants;
c) study the working and living conditions of workers
for further action.
3. Place the following events in chronological order:
a) the formation of the Council of Workers’ Representatives in Ivanovo-Voznesensk;
b) the uprising of sailors on the battleship “Prince Potemkin-Tavrichesky”;
c) the shooting of a peaceful march of workers in St. Petersburg;
d) armed uprising in Moscow;
e) All-Russian political strike.
4. It is known that in 1905 Nicholas II was inclined to suppress the revolution by force and in this regard intended to appoint a military dictator. However, according to the recollections of the head of the office of the Ministry of the Imperial Court, A. A. Mosolov, the man whom the emperor predicted to become a dictator said: “If the sovereign does not accept Witte’s program and wants to appoint me dictator, I will shoot myself in front of his eyes...” This was :
a) Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich, commander of the Guard troops in the St. Petersburg Military District;
b) F.V. Dubasov, Moscow Governor-General;
c) D. F. Trepov, St. Petersburg Governor General.
5. The guards regiment “became famous” for suppressing an armed uprising in Moscow:
a) Volynsky;
b) Semenovsky;
c) Preobrazhensky.
6. The first chairman of the St. Petersburg Council of Workers' Deputies (October 1905) was elected:
a) G. V. Plekhanov;
b) L. D. Trotsky;
c) G. S. Khrustalev-Nosar.
7. The government troops that brutally suppressed the uprising of Moscow workers in the Presnya region in December 1905 were commanded by:
a) Admiral F.V. Dubasov;
b) General A. N. Meller-Zakomelsky;
c) General S.S. Khabalov.
8. Match events, dates and cities:
a) the uprising of sailors on the battleship “Prince Potemkin-Tavrichesky”;
b) performance of sailors under the leadership of Lieutenant P.P. Schmidt;
c) formation of the Council of Workers' Representatives;
d) shooting of a peaceful march of workers;
e) armed uprising.
a) St. Petersburg; b) Moscow; c) Ivanovo-Voznesensk; d) Sevastopol; d) Odessa.
9. Note the demands from the workers’ petition to Nicholas II, which were satisfied by the government during the first Russian revolution:
a) the creation of bodies of popular representation in the country;
b) introduction of democratic rights and freedoms in the country;
c) universal compulsory free education;
d) separation of church and state;
e) cancellation of redemption payments;
f) 8-hour working day.
10. The main result of the revolution of 1905-1907. was:
a) liquidation of landownership;
b) meeting the economic demands of the working class;
c) the emergence of a legislative representative body of power.
The emergence of a multi-party system
in Russia
1. Name the features of the emergence of a multi-party system in the country:
a) earlier emergence of political parties compared to European countries;
b) socialist parties were the first to emerge;
c) the organization of political parties became possible solely thanks to the efforts of the intelligentsia;
d) a small number of political parties;
e) a significant number of political parties.
The king got scared and issued a manifesto:
“Freedom for the dead! Those alive are under arrest!”
Prisons and bullets
The people were returned.
So they put an end to freedom.
According to his political views, the poet belonged to:
a) liberals;
b) Black Hundreds;
c) social democrats.
3. At the Second Congress of the RSDLP (1903), Lenin’s supporters were called “Bolsheviks”, since they:
a) had a numerical majority at the congress;
b) secured a majority in elections to the central bodies of the party;
c) dominated in the composition of grassroots party organizations.
4. The agricultural part of the RSDLP Program was revised in:
5. The project of “municipalization” of the land was put forward by:
a) Bolsheviks;
b) Mensheviks;
c) cadets.
6. The land “municipalization” program provided for:
a) nationalization of all land in the country;
b) confiscation of the landowner's land;
c) preservation of small peasant ownership of land;
e) transfer of land to the disposal of local authorities.
7. The Socialist Revolutionary program for the “socialization” of the land provided for:
a) withdrawal of land from commercial circulation;
b) distribution of land according to consumer or “labor” norm;
c) transfer of land into state ownership;
d) transfer of land to the disposal of peasant communities;
e) confiscation of the landowner's land.
8. The requirement for an 8-hour working day was not included in the program:
b) constitutional democratic party;
c) the Socialist Revolutionary Party.
9. The federal structure of the state demanded:
c) constitutional democratic party.
10. The ideas and demands of the program of the constitutional democratic party were:
a) liquidation of autocracy;
b) limitation of autocracy by a parliamentary democratic body;
c) the right of nations to self-determination;
d) preservation of a united and indivisible Russia with the granting of autonomy to Poland and Finland;
e) introduction of democratic rights and freedoms.
11. The ideas and demands of the program of the “Union of the Russian People” were:
a) establishment of a constitutional monarchy;
b) preservation and strengthening of autocratic power;
c) Russia for Russians;
d) convening of the State Duma;
e) introduction of universal suffrage.
12. Name the leaders of the following parties:
a) constitutional-democratic;
c) socialist revolutionaries;
d) "Union of the Russian People."
a) A. I. Guchkov; b) V. I. Ulyanov; c) P. N. Milyukov; d) A. I. Dubrovin; d) V. M. Chernov.
13. At the beginning of the 20th century. The victims of the Socialist Revolutionary terror were:
a) Governor General of Moscow, Grand Duke Sergei Alexandrovich;
b) Minister of Internal Affairs V.K. Plehve;
c) Governor General of St. Petersburg D. F. Trepov;
d) State Duma deputy M. Ya. Herzenshtein.
Experience of Russian parliamentarism
a) A. G. Bulygin;
b) P. A. Stolypin;
c) P. N. Durnovo.
2. The law on elections to the First State Duma was adopted:
3. In Russia, the following were deprived of voting rights:
a) women;
b) youth under 25 years of age;
c) workers of large industrial enterprises
d) military personnel;
d) officials.
4. The principles characteristic of the Russian electoral system were:
a) direct participation in elections of the entire population;
b) equal participation in elections of the entire population;
c) curial election system;
d) multi-level election system.
5. Article 87 of the Basic Laws of the Russian Empire provided for the right of the emperor:
a) issue urgent laws during breaks between sessions of the Duma;
b) dissolve the Duma at its own discretion;
c) change the electoral law.
a) was the upper legislative chamber;
b) exercised control over the activities of the State Duma;
c) controlled the execution of decisions of the State Duma.
7. By decree of February 20, 1906, the principle of staffing the State Council changed, namely:
a) the entire population of the country participated in his election;
b) only representatives of the noble class were allowed to participate in his elections;
c) half of the members of the State Council were elected by elite organizations, half were appointed by the emperor.
8. On April 16, 1905, S. Yu. Witte was dismissed from the post of Chairman of the Council of Ministers for the reason that he:
a) delayed in every possible way the opening of the First State Duma;
b) was going to become a Duma deputy;
c) assured Nicholas II that with the advent of the Duma, revolutionary protests would stop, but this did not happen.
9. Instead of S. Yu. Witte, the following was appointed to the post of Chairman of the Council of Ministers:
a) A. G. Bulygin;
b) I. L. Goremykin;
c) P. A. Stolypin.
10. The 1st State Duma worked with:
11. In the First State Duma, the largest faction was:
a) Trudoviks;
b) monarchists;
c) cadets.
12. Elections to the First State Duma were boycotted by:
a) social democrats;
c) monarchists.
13. The 1st State Duma was called the “Duma of People’s Hopes”, because:
a) its discovery in society was associated with Russia’s transition to parliamentarism;
b) the peasants hoped to receive from her hands
landowner's land;
c) the people expected her to adopt a constitution.
14. “Project 104”, submitted to the First State Duma by the Labor Group on May 23, 1906, provided for:
a) immediate transfer of all land with its subsoil and waters into public ownership;
b) alienation of part of the landowners' lands exceeding the “labor norm”;
c) creation of a “national land fund”;
d) immediate and complete destruction of private ownership of land;
e) allocating land to everyone who wants to cultivate it with their labor;
f) allocation of land within the “labor norm”.
15. The reason for the dissolution of the First State Duma was:
a) the Duma “Address to the People” on the land issue;
b) the Duma’s decision to dismiss the government of I. L. Goremykin;
c) the murder of Duma deputies M. Ya. Herzenstein and G. B. Yollos.
16. After the dissolution of the First State Duma, some of the deputies, on the initiative of the cadet faction, gathered in Vyborg to develop an appeal to the population. They called on the people to:
a) passive resistance - not paying taxes, not performing military service;
b) armed uprising;
c) approval of government actions.
17. The II State Duma worked with:
18. The largest faction in the Second State Duma was:
a) cadets;
b) Trudoviks;
c) social democrats.
19. The II State Duma was called “red” because:
a) representatives of all major revolutionary parties took part in its work;
b) she adopted a law on the partial alienation of landowners' lands;
c) it met in the Red Hall of the Tauride Palace.
20. The events associated with the dissolution of the II Duma and the publication of the new electoral law of June 3, 1907, were a coup d'etat because:
a) The Duma was dispersed with the help of the army;
b) the emperor did not have the right to dissolve the Duma;
c) the emperor did not have the right to change the electoral law without the consent of the Duma.
a) landowners;
b) representatives of the bourgeois strata;
c) intelligentsia.
22. Boycotted the elections to the III State Duma:
b) Socialist Revolutionary Party;
c) monarchist party.
23. The party that received the largest number of seats in the III State Duma was:
a) constitutional democratic;
c) “peaceful renewal”.
24. On July 26, 1914, a special meeting of the IV State Duma was held, at which the so-called holy alliance between the deputies was concluded. The main outcome of this meeting was that:
a) almost all deputies, with the exception of monarchists, voted against Russia’s entry into the world war;
b) deputies expressed no confidence in the government;
c) almost all deputies, with the exception of the Social Democrats, voted for the acceptance of war loans.
25. In November 1914, five deputies of the IV State Duma were arrested, contrary to parliamentary immunity. They represented the faction:
a) cadets;
b) Social Revolutionaries;
c) Bolsheviks.
26. Indicate the chairmen of the Duma:
a) F. A. Golovin; b) N. A. Khomyakov,
A. I. Guchkov, M. V. Rodzianko;
c) M. V. Rodzianko; d) S. A. Muromtsev.
Reforms of P. A. Stolypin
1. P. A. Stolypin’s agricultural program included measures such as:
a) liquidation of landownership;
b) widespread development of the cooperative movement;
c) free exit of peasants from the community;
d) resettlement of peasants beyond the Urals;
D) prohibition of free purchase and sale of land.
a) diverting the attention of peasants from the idea of forced alienation of landowners’ lands;
b) turning Russia into a rule of law state;
c) the formation of market relations in the agricultural sector.
3. P. A. Stolypin’s agrarian reform was aimed at:
a) destruction of the communal psychology of the Russian peasantry;
b) the formation of a wide layer of small bourgeois owners;
c) liquidation of large land owners.
4. Russian peasants did not want to leave the community:
a) due to the lack of state support for individual farms;
b) under the influence of revolutionary propaganda;
c) due to existing psychological stereotypes.
a) he himself was a large landowner;
b) in his opinion, this idea contradicted
norms of the rule of law;
c) believed that the implementation of this idea would lead to endless redistribution of property.
6. The benefits provided to migrant peasants were:
a) exemption from military conscription;
b) cash benefit;
c) free provision of equipment;
d) the right to duty-free trade on the foreign market.
7. During the Stolypin agrarian reform, peasants put forward such a form of self-organization as:
a) volost peasant councils;
b) All-Russian Peasant Union;
c) agricultural cooperatives.
8. After the introduction of courts-martial (decree of August 19, 1906), contemporaries began to call the gallows “Stolypin ties.” The author of this expression was:
a) State Duma deputy cadet F.I. Rodichev;
b) Bolshevik leader V.I. Lenin;
c) retired Prime Minister S. Yu. Witte.
9. Stolypin’s agrarian reform was supported by the party:
a) socialist revolutionaries;
c) "Union of the Russian People."
10. Nicholas II stopped supporting Stolypin because:
a) saw in his endeavors a threat to autocratic power;
b) was afraid of being in the shadow of the bright figure of the minister;
c) was against the destruction of the peasant community.
11. The terrorist act against P. A. Stolypin was committed by:
a) E. F. Azef;
b) D. G. Bogrov;
c) B. 3. Savinkov.
12. After the death of Stolypin, the Chairman of the Council of Ministers became:
a) I. L. Goremykin;
b) V. N. Kokovtsov;
c) B.V. Sturmer.
13. Indicate which terms correspond to the following definitions:
a) a form of organization of production and labor based on group ownership, a form of connections between enterprises engaged in the joint production of certain products;
b) a plot of land allocated to a peasant upon leaving the community with the preservation of his yard in the village;
c) a plot of land allocated to a peasant when he left the community and moved from the village to his own plot.
a) Farm; b) cooperation; c) cut
Foreign policy of Nicholas II
1. At the beginning of the reign of Nicholas II, Russia’s special interest in a peaceful Europe was explained by the fact that:
a) the country had no allies among the leading European powers;
b) its military-industrial potential was significantly inferior to the potential of the European powers;
c) peace in Europe facilitated the establishment of Russian dominance in East Asia.
2. To establish peace in Europe, Nicholas II:
a) entered into an agreement with Great Britain;
b) initiated the convening of an international conference on the problems of general disarmament;
c) recognized the primacy of Austria-Hungary in the Balkans.
3. Indicate which event falls out of the general logical series:
a) the death of the cruiser “Varyag”; b) defense of Port Arthur; c) Battle of Tsushima; d) Brusilovsky breakthrough; e) Portsmouth Peace.
4. Match names and facts:
a) S. Yu. Witte;
b) Nicholas II;
c) S. O. Makarov;
d) A. M. Stessel;
e) A. N. Kuropatkin;
f) 3. P. Rozhdestvensky.
a) The Hague International Conference; b) the death of the cruiser "Petropavlovsk"; c) conclusion of the Portsmouth Peace; d) Battle of Tsushima; e) surrender of Port Arthur; f) Mukden disaster.
5. During the Russo-Japanese War, an outstanding Russian artist died:
a) V.V. Vereshchagin;
b) I.K. Aivazovsky;
c) A. I. Kuindzhi
6. Place the following events in chronological order:
a) the battle of Liaoyang;
b) the fall of Port Arthur;
c) the battle of the Shahe River;
d) Battle of Tsushima;
e) the battle of Mukden.
7. The Treaty of Portsmouth provided:
a) compensation by Russia for material losses to Japan in the amount of 100 million gold rubles;
b) occupation of Sakhalin Island by Japanese troops;
c) transfer of South Sakhalin to Japan;
d) transfer of the Liaodong Peninsula to Japan.
8. At the beginning of the 20th century. The “powder keg of Europe” was called:
a) Polish lands that were part of Russia;
b) Balkans;
c) the German Empire.
9. The Supreme Commander-in-Chief of the Russian army in the initial period of the First World War was:
a) Nicholas II;
b) Grand Duke Nikolai Nikolaevich;
c) A. A. Brusilov.
10. The commander-in-chief of the Southwestern Front in 1916 was:
a) A. A. Brusilov;
b) Ya. G. Zhilinsky;
c) A. V. Samsonov.
11. The decisive influence on the failures of the Russian army in 1915 was had by:
a) severe weather conditions;
b) lack of shells;
c) the presence of German spies at the royal court.
12. The following were successful for the Russian troops in the First World War:
a) Galician operation (August-September 1914);
b) Gorlitsky breakthrough (April-June 1915);
c) Erzurum operation (December 1915 - February 1916).
13. Place the following events in chronological order:
a) Brusilovsky breakthrough;
b) East Prussian operation;
c) Galician operation;
d) evacuation of Russian troops from Warsaw;
d) Gorlitsky breakthrough.
Aggravation of the internal political situation
1. The real purpose of the sensational trial of 1913, called the “Beilis case,” was the government’s desire to:
a) uncover an extensive German spy network;
b) cause a new explosion of anti-Semitism;
c) defeat the largest terrorist organization.
2. At the end of 1914, Nikolai P notified in writing the Chairman of the Council of Ministers V.N. Kokovtsov of his resignation. Arguing this decision, the emperor, in particular, wrote: “... the rapid pace of internal life and the amazing rise of the country’s economic forces require the adoption of decisive and serious measures, which only a fresh person can cope with.” This “fresh” person, appointed by the emperor to the post of prime minister after Kokovtsov’s resignation, was:
a) I. L. Goremykin;
b) P. N. Milyukov;
c) A. V. Krivoshein.
3. In 1915, Chairman of the IV State Duma M.V. Rodzianko called the “greatest mistake” of Nicholas’s reign:
a) creation of the “Progressive Bloc”;
b) arrest of Minister of War V. A. Sukhomlinov;
c) Nicholas II assumed the duties of Supreme Commander-in-Chief.
4. Indicate which factor was decisive in the rapid restructuring of the Russian economy on a war footing:
a) combining the efforts of the state and private capital;
b) general labor mobilization of the population;
c) influx of foreign investment.
5. “Progressive block” is:
a) organization of progressive-minded intelligentsia;
b) scientific and technical society;
c) an inter-party coalition of deputies of the Duma and the State Council.
6. The “Progressive Bloc” advocated:
a) immediate end to the war;
b) replacing the autocratic monarchy with a democratic republic;
c) the creation of a government of “public trust” responsible to the Duma.
7. Participated in the murder of Rasputin:
a) P. N. Milyukov;
b) V. M. Purishkevich;
c) V.V. Shulgin.
8. In 1915, the following was put on trial for the unpreparedness of the Russian army for war:
a) Minister of War V. A. Sukhomlinov;
b) manager of the Ministry of Railways A.F. Trepov;
c) Minister of the Imperial Court V. B. Frederike.
9. Indicate which of the following statements correspond to historical reality:
a) in 1916, Russia experienced a catastrophic drop in arms production;
b) in gratitude for the services rendered during the war, Nicholas II introduced representatives of the big bourgeoisie into the government;
c) in the fall of 1916, there was an acute shortage of food in Moscow and Petrograd;
d) the Cadets and Octobrists sharply condemned the government for launching military operations against Germany;
e) the leader of the Bolsheviks V.I. Lenin put forward the slogan of the defeat of his government in the war;
f) Lenin’s position on the war was supported by the oldest Russian Marxist G.V. Plekhanov.
Silver Age of Russian Culture
1. Indicate which of the following statements do not correspond to historical reality:
a) in 1908, universal primary education was introduced in the Russian Empire;
b) at the beginning of the 20th century. in Russia all classes had access to higher education;
c) at the beginning of the 20th century. The literacy level of the population of the Russian Empire was the lowest among the leading world powers;
d) Russian government spending on education has been constantly declining.
2. The Nobel Prize laureates were:
a) D. I. Mendeleev;
b) I. I. Mechnikov;
c) I. P. Pavlov.
3. Indicate the area of research of the following scientists:
a) P. N. Lebedev;
b) V. I. Vernadsky;
c) I. P. Pavlov;
d) I. I. Mechnikov;
d) N. E. Zhukovsky;
f) K. E. Tsiolkovsky;
g) V. O. Klyuchevsky.
a) Physiology; b) immunology; c) history of Russia; d) physics of electromagnetic waves; e) rocket science; f) aerodynamics; g) the doctrine of the biosphere.
4. The first Russian car was called:
a) "Russo-Balt";
c) “Russian Knight”.
5. N. A. Berdyaev, S. N. Bulgakov, P. B. Struve, S. L. Frank are:
c) participants in the “Russian Seasons” in Paris.
6. “We were and are the first Bolsheviks in art” - this is the slogan:
a) acmeists;
b) symbolists;
c) futurists.
7. Specify a name that falls outside the general logical series:
a) I. P. Argunov; b) V.V. Kandinsky;
c) A. V. Lentulov; d) K. S. Malevich;
e) R. R. Falk; f) M. Z. Chagall.
8. Indicate which of the listed artists of the early 20th century. The following works belong to:
a) V. A. Serov;
b) B. M. Kustodiev;
c) K. S. Petrov-Vodkin;
d) N. I. Altman;
e) K. S. Malevich;
e) M. A. Vrubel.
a) “Bathing the Red Horse” (1912); b) portrait of A. A. Akhmatova (1914); c) “Black Square” (1913); d) “The Rape of Europe” (1910); e) “The Demon Defeated” (1902); f) “Merchant's Wife” (1914).
9. The artists of the Blue Rose association belonged to:
a) primitivists;
b) symbolists;
c) cubists.
10. The activities of the “World of Art” reflected the idea:
a) synthesis of various types of arts;
b) return to folk traditions;
c) denial of previous cultural experience.
11. Organizer of the “Russian Seasons” in Paris in 1907-1913. was:
a) A. N. Benois;
b) S. P. Diaghilev;
c) F.I. Shalyapin.
12. Indicate who made a significant contribution to the development:
a) ballet;
c) theater;
d) cinema.
a) A. A. Gorsky; b) T. P. Karsavina; c) V. F. Komissarzhevskaya; d) V. E. Meyerhold; e) V. F. Nijinsky; f) A. P. Pavlova; g) Ya. A. Protazanov; h) L. V. Sobinov; i) K. S. Stanislavsky; j) V.V. Kholodnaya; k) F. I. Shalyapin; m) M. M. Fokin.
13. The first Russian feature film, released in 1908, was called:
a) “Queen of Spades”;
b) “Woman with a Dagger”;
c) “Stenka Razin and the princess.”
14. The first Russian full-length film, which appeared in 1911, was called:
a) “Defense of Sevastopol”;
b) “Song of Triumphant Love”;
c) "Nobles' Nest".
15. M. E. Pyatnitsky’s contribution to Russian culture is that he:
a) organized the first theater school-studio;
b) founded the Russian folk choir;
c) created the country's first film studio.
16. Specify the terms that correspond to the following definitions:
a) a literary movement, whose representatives saw the goal of creativity in the subconscious-intuitive comprehension of the secret meanings of life that are beyond the limits of sensory experience;
b) a direction in art that denies the artistic and moral heritage, preaches a break with traditional culture and the aesthetics of modern urban civilization with its dynamics and impersonality;
c) direction in Russian poetry at the beginning of the 20th century,
advocated concrete sensory perception of the “material world”, returning the word to its original meaning.
a) Acmeism; b) symbolism; c) futurism.
/ Historical local history / Tomsk and Tomsk residents in the history of Russian parliamentarism / Legislative power in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century: pages of history
The first semblance of parliament in Russia were legislative bodies - the Boyar Duma of the 16th-17th centuries, the council of associates of Peter I, the “circle of young friends of the emperor” under Alexander I.
As a result of the zemstvo reform of Alexander II, unique provincial parliaments-zemstvos appeared, which had legislative deliberative rights. But the emperor was categorically against the creation of an all-Russian zemstvo, seeing this as a limitation of the principles of autocracy.
However, due to the intensification of terror, Alexander II, who believed that the zemstvos were loyal to state power, issued an order to join the assembly of zemstvo representatives to the State Council.
This meeting was supposed to have only a legislative character, but later it could become a full-fledged parliament. The plans were interrupted by the assassination of Alexander II in March 1881.
The next emperor, Alexander III, pursued a policy of counter-reforms in order to strengthen the autocracy.
Nicholas II, who came to power in 1894, continued his father’s policies.
However, in January-February 1905, the first Russian revolution began in Russia (1905-1907). It demonstrated that the autocratic period in the history of the Russian state is ending and the period of practical constitutionalization and parliamentarization of the country begins.
The first, at first moderate, steps towards parliamentarization were associated with the adoption by Nicholas II of documents dated August 6, 1905: “The Highest Manifesto on the Establishment of the State Duma”, “The Law on the Establishment of the State Duma” and “Regulations on Elections to the State Duma”.
However, these acts established the status of the State Duma as a legislative advisory body under the monarch.
In addition, the documents of August 6, 1905 on the elections contained a lot of restrictions and qualification requirements that prevented wide circles of Russian society from taking part in the work of even such a powerless Duma.
The State Council was supposed to function in tandem with the State Duma. The status of a legislative body under the monarch was given to the State Council at the time of its creation - in 1810. The manifesto of August 6, 1905 only confirmed this status.
The starting point for the formation of parliamentarism in Russia was the Highest Manifesto, signed by Tsar Nicholas II on October 17, 1905, “On the improvement of public order” and a whole series of acts developing the provisions of the Manifesto and also approved by the emperor’s decrees, issued in 1905-1906: Decree of 11 December 1905 “On amending the Regulations on elections to the State Duma (dated August 6, 1905) and the legislation issued in addition to it,” Manifesto of February 20, 1906 “On amending the establishment of the State Council and revising the establishment of the State Duma” , Decree of February 20, 1906 “Establishment of the State Duma” (new edition), etc.
The Manifesto of October 17, 1905 occupies a special place among these documents. It said: “To establish as an unshakable rule that no law can take effect without the approval of the State Duma, and that those elected by the people are provided with the opportunity to truly participate in monitoring the regularity of the actions of the authorities appointed by us.”
This meant that the State Duma was transformed from a legislative body into a legislative body. The rights in legislative activities of not only the State Duma, but also the State Council were expanded. He, like the State Duma, was also endowed with legislative, rather than advisory, powers.
The formation of Russian parliamentarism at the beginning of the 20th century
The formation of parliamentarism, political movements
To understand the process of the formation of parliamentarism in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century, in my opinion, it is necessary to consider the party movements that existed at that time. Who participated in political life and formed the first “Duma Advisory Chambers”.
The intelligentsia became the social base on the basis of which in the late 19th - early 20th centuries. Various political parties are formed.
In September 1905, the Constitutional Democratic Party was formed. In the party program, approved at the founding congress in October 1905, the main tasks were as follows: the formation of a bicameral parliament, one chamber of which would consist of representatives of local government bodies; giving parliament the power to authorize any legislative act and approve the budget; restoration of the democratic principles of the judicial reform of 1864; abolition of redemption payments for peasants, development of direct taxation, alienation of state and landowners' lands for payment and allotment of them to needy peasants; development of leasing in the agricultural sector; presumption of the right of workers to strike and elective labor inspections, an eight-hour working day, a ban on night and overtime work, state social insurance, criminal liability of entrepreneurs for violating labor laws, etc.
Close to the constitutional democrats (the so-called Cadets) in spirit and programmatic requirements, the moderate-progressive party insisted on the inviolability of the supreme power of the tsar and the responsibility of the government to the representatives of the people. In the field of state reform, this party defended the integrity of the Russian state with the independence of local self-government, and opposed any kind of autonomies and federations. In the sphere of labor relations, she stood in solidarity with the Cadets, opposing only the establishment of an 8-hour working day, which, according to party ideologists, weakened the position of the domestic economy in competition with the economies of Western countries.
The All-Russian Trade and Industrial Union advocated a unified empire with a constitutional monarch and a cabinet of ministers based on a parliamentary majority (English constitutional model). The programmatic and political goal of the party was the economic commonwealth of the commercial and industrial classes, the representation of this commonwealth in all public organizations, parliament and government institutions.
The party of monarchist-constitutionalists proceeded from the main idea: “The Tsar is the father of the people, Russia is unthinkable without a Tsar.” It was proposed to solve the peasant question by transferring communal land use to household land use and a radical reorganization of the peasant bank. At the same time, the idea of forming a state land fund was rejected. It was proposed to reform public education on a corporate basis with the encouragement of rational elements of nationalism. The party program contained an indication of the “danger of the political views of Jewry.” The general political attitude was postulated as follows: “Universal, equal, direct and secret suffrage is impossible at the dawn of parliamentarism in Russia.”
The parties listed above formed the right wing. The slogan of right-wing parties and social movements became the thesis: “Orthodoxy, autocracy, nationality.” At the same time, on the right flank there was a regrouping of a significant number of various kinds of “Black Hundred” unions, societies, brotherhoods, squads and leagues, which united in November 1905 into the “Union of the Russian People”. The Union had an extensive system of local government bodies under the leadership of the so-called Main Council, whose activities were supported by the state and the church. The Black Hundreds recognized the autocratic monarchy as the only acceptable form of government for the country.
As for the parties on the left wing of the political spectrum, they were formed on the basis of populist and Marxist ideology. In 1898, representatives of the Union of Struggle for the Liberation of the Working Class, the Rabochaya Gazeta and Bund groups held a congress in Minsk, proclaiming the formation of the Russian Social Democratic Labor Party (RSDLP). At the second congress of the party in 1903, it split into “Bolsheviks” and “Mensheviks.” The Party Program and Charter were also adopted here. The RSDLP (b) entered the revolution of 1905 with a clear program of political and government reforms. Autocracy was recognized as a social relic and the worst enemy of the people. It was proposed to form a unicameral parliament on the basis of universal, equal, direct suffrage, create elected courts, separate the church from the state, carry out the general arming of the people, establish a progressive income tax, an 8-hour working day, prohibit fines in production, introduce criminal liability for entrepreneurs for violation labor legislation. For peasants, it was proposed to cancel redemption payments and allow the alienation of palace, landowner and monastery lands. In the political sphere, the overthrow of the autocracy and the transfer of power to the Constituent Assembly were proclaimed.
The ideological successor of the Narodnaya Volya party was the Socialist Revolutionary Party (SRs), formed in 1902. Its main slogan: “Socialization of the land” (abolition of private ownership of land), the main method of struggle is terror. In the political field, the Socialist Revolutionaries insisted on the introduction of a democratic republic with broad regional autonomy, universal suffrage and the replacement of the regular army with a people's militia. The Socialist Revolutionaries considered the RSDLP as allies in realizing their main goal - the liquidation of the autocracy and the convening of the Zemsky Sobor (Constituent Assembly).
The beginning of the revolution was the so-called “Bloody Sunday” - January 9, 1905, when the tsarist troops and police shot down a peaceful march of over 140 thousand workers of the capital to the Winter Palace to submit a petition to the tsar about their needs. This caused an unprecedented explosion of popular indignation and unrest throughout the country.
The main result of the bourgeois-democratic revolution of 1905–1907 was that the supreme power was forced to change the socio-political system of Russia. New state institutions emerged in the country, indicating the beginning of the era of parliamentarism. Some limitation of autocracy was achieved, although the tsar retained the ability to make legislative decisions and full executive power.
I and II State Dumas and their programs
The First State Duma was elected on the basis of the electoral law on December 11, 1905. 25 million people received the right to vote. Farmers, women, soldiers, sailors, students, and workers employed in small enterprises did not participate in the elections. Age (25 years) and property qualifications were introduced. The elections were multi-stage, and the rights of voters were unequal. The landowner's vote was equal to 3 votes of the bourgeoisie, 15 votes of the peasants and 45 votes of the workers.
The composition of the Duma deputies is 34% Cadets, 14% Octobrists, 23% Trudoviks (close to the Social Revolutionaries), about 4% Mensheviks.
The Bolsheviks boycotted the elections to the State Duma, and the Black Hundreds did not get into it.
“The subjects of jurisdiction of the State Duma were determined by the “Establishment of the State Duma” - a document regulating its activities. In accordance with it, the jurisdiction of the Duma was subject to:
– subjects requiring the publication of laws and states, as well as their amendment, addition, suspension and repeal;
- state list of income and expenses together with financial estimates of ministries and main departments, as well as cash allocations from the treasury not provided for by the list - on the basis of established rules;
– report of state control on the execution of state registration;
– cases of alienation of part of state income or property, requiring the Highest permission;
- cases on the construction of railways by direct order of the treasury and at its expense;
– cases on the establishment of campaigns for actions, when exemptions from existing laws are requested;
- cases submitted to the Duma for consideration by special Highest commands.
As we see, the rights and sphere of competence of the State Duma were clearly defined and limited. This was enshrined in the new edition of the Basic Laws of the Russian Empire, adopted on the eve of the start of the work of the lower chamber. In accordance with the law, the power of supreme administration remained entirely in the hands of the emperor, who inseparably belonged to:
- all power to govern the country through the ministry responsible to him, and not to the people's representative office and through all other officials appointed on his behalf;
- the entire structure and legislation on the army and navy;
– the right to declare an area under martial law and a state of exception;
– authorization of loans if the State Duma does not approve them during the session.
Thus, in the apt expression of S. Yu. Witte, the new Basic Laws pursued the goal of taking away from the Duma everything that is dangerous to touch.”
This Duma proposed a program for the democratization of Russia: the introduction of ministerial responsibility to parliament; guarantees of civil liberties; establishment of universal free education; carrying out agrarian reform; meeting the demands of national minorities; abolition of the death penalty; political amnesty for participants in the revolution. The key consideration in the Duma was the consideration of projects on the agrarian issue of the Cadets and Trudoviks. The government, supported by conservatives, rejected them, which intensified its confrontation with the State Duma. 72 days after the opening of the Duma, the Tsar dissolved it, saying that it did not calm the people, but inflamed passions.
"Vyborg Appeal"
On July 9, 1906, the new Minister of Internal Affairs P. A. Stolypin dissolved the State Duma. Some of the deputies went to Vyborg.
They adopted the “Vyborg Appeal”, in which they called on the people not to pay taxes and not to send soldiers to the army. Goremykin was forced to resign. Stolypin became the new chairman of the Council of Ministers. The drafters of the appeal were persecuted and lost the opportunity to get into the next Duma.
II State Duma
In November 1906, the election campaign to the Second State Duma began.
Elections to the Second Duma took place not just in the context of the decline of the revolution, but in those months of 1907 when it was increasingly obvious that it would soon end in defeat. Meanwhile, this circumstance did not fundamentally affect the outcome of the Duma campaign. The parties opposing the tsarist government again, as in 1906, won the sympathy of the majority of citizens who came to vote in the elections. True, the ratio of seats in the lower legislative chamber was somewhat different compared to what it was almost a year ago. Thus, the Cadets and the Trudoviks, although they remained the largest Duma factions, swapped places in terms of numbers (the Cadets lost first place to the Trudoviks, losing about 80 seats; the Trudoviks, on the contrary, somewhat strengthened their positions, overtaking the Cadets in the number of deputies). The socialist “diaspora” in the Second State Duma turned out to be strong: the Socialist Revolutionaries and Social Democrats (Social Democrats) brought over 100 of their supporters into the Duma. One of the differences between the party composition of the Second Duma and its predecessor was the presence in the Tauride Palace of representatives of right-wing parties and an increase in the number of moderate liberals, primarily Octobrists.
As in the 1st Duma, the agrarian question was central in the 2nd. Projects of forced alienation of landowners' lands frightened the government. Having existed for 102 days, the Duma was dissolved by the Tsar's manifesto of June 3, 1907.
June 3rd coup d'etat
“The reason for the dissolution of the Second State Duma was the accusation of 55 members of the Social Democratic faction of preparing a military coup. On June 1, 1907, in a closed meeting of the Duma, Stolypin demanded the immediate extradition of the conspiratorial deputies and their trial. The Duma did not agree to bring them to justice and decided to transfer the case to a special Duma commission, which, waiting for the exposure of the obviously fabricated case and, prompted by the demands of Nicholas II to immediately disperse the Duma, began decisive action. On the night of June 2-3, 37 deputies of the Social Democratic faction were arrested, the rest went underground, and on the morning of June 3, 1907, the country learned from the Highest Decree about the dispersal of the Second State Duma.”
This manifesto symbolized the emergence in Russia of a new system of political organization of the state, called the “June Third Monarchy.” During this period, the government's internal policy was determined by objective post-revolutionary conditions. On the one hand, it was aimed at suppressing the anti-autocratic movement. On the other hand, it was no longer possible not to take into account the lessons of the revolution, which testified to the need for reforms to expand the social support of the supreme power. In this regard, two lines were clearly visible in the internal policy of the autocracy: the onset of reaction in all areas of public life and maneuvering between different social forces. The first line was carried out by administrative and ideological measures of the government, supported by the power-oriented media and the church. The second line was carried out through the adoption and implementation of new legislative acts.
III State Duma
The election campaign for elections to the Third State Duma took place in the second half of 1907.
The ability of the government to maneuver between various political forces was ensured by the electoral law established by the same manifesto of June 3, 1907. Based on this law, elections to the Third State Duma were no longer universal, but class-based, unequal, indirect and multi-stage, taking place in an atmosphere of total police investigation and terror.
The Duma of the third convocation included: 32% of “right-wing” deputies; 33% of the Octobrists who made up the center; 12% of Cadets, 3% of Trudoviks, 4.2% of Social Democrats and 6% of nationalist parties formed the “left” flank. It was in the 3rd State Duma that the mechanism of the so-called parliamentary Octobrist “pendulum” took shape.
The results of the election campaign were more than satisfactory for the government. This was explained by the fact that a minority of opposition deputies entered the Duma. This time, the leading party in the new pro-government Duma of the 3rd convocation was the Decembrist party. And as a result, the government received a new loyal Duma.
“The Union of October 17 party turned out to be the Duma center, and the Octobrist N. A. Khomyakov was elected chairman. In March 1910, he was replaced by party leader A. I. Guchkov, and a year later the Octobrist M. V. Rodzianko was elected head of parliament, who then became chairman of the Fourth Duma (1912–1917).”
It is worth noting that the Third Duma worked very fruitfully for the entire period allotted to it, namely from November 1, 1907 to June 9, 1912. During its five-year work, the Duma adopted more than two thousand bills. They concerned a wide range of issues, covering to one degree or another all aspects of the country's life and aimed at the gradual reform of traditional economic structures and social structures. Central among them was the most pressing issue - the agrarian one.
“The State Duma saw among its main tasks the strengthening of the country’s defense power, shaken by the unsuccessful Russian-Japanese War, the strengthening of the financial position of the state, the restoration of internal order and legality in all spheres of life. The Duma's disposition to carry out liberal reforms, on the one hand, supported the public's hope for a gradual peaceful solution to all pressing issues; on the other hand, it made it possible to appear in the eyes of the world community as a country that followed the democratic path of the Western European model.
This largely explains the fact that the Third Duma is the only one of all the Dumas of the period of the Duma monarchy that has exhausted its five-year term of office.”
IV State Duma
The pre-election and electoral campaigns for the Fourth Duma continued almost throughout 1912, and this was a time of a new revolutionary upsurge. At the same time, the results of the elections to these two Dumas fundamentally coincide in many ways: the relative majority belonged to the Octobrists (125 and 96 seats, respectively, out of 442, since according to the law of June 3, 1907, the total number of deputies was reduced by 82). The Cadets retained about 50 parliamentary seats, leaving behind not only the Octobrists, but also the rightists, who, due to internal contradictions, created several factions with various conservative shades. Trudoviks and Social Democrats in both the Third and Fourth Dumas were represented by only a few deputies, ranging from 10 to 19. Thus, changes in the socio-political situation in the country did not directly have a decisive influence on the results of the Duma elections.
At the end of 1912, elections to the 4th State Duma took place. Its party composition has remained virtually unchanged. It retained two majorities: the right-Octobrist and the Octobrist-Cadet. However, the social movement in the country has intensified significantly. A new liberal Progressive Party took shape, headed by representatives of monopoly capital - A. Konovalov, P. Ryabushinsky, S. Tretyakov and others. Declaring the program goals of their party, its leaders advocated a constitutional-monarchical system, expansion of the powers of the State Duma and increased responsibility of ministers in front of her. The progressives occupied an intermediate position between the Octobrists and the Cadets and tried to achieve the consolidation of all liberals.
The situation did not allow the Fourth Duma to concentrate on large-scale work. She was constantly feverish. Moreover, with the outbreak of the World War in August 1914, after major failures of the Russian army at the front, the Duma entered into an acute conflict with the executive branch.
On September 3, 1915, after the Duma accepted the war loans allocated by the government, it was dissolved for vacation. The Duma met again only in February 1916.
But the Duma did not last long. On December 16, 1916 it was dissolved again. Resumed activity on February 14, 1917.
Mass discontent with the authorities at the very beginning of 1917 led to very sad consequences; the revolutionary movement flared up with renewed vigor in the very heart of the empire - Petrograd. Thus announcing the beginning of the February Revolution to an already exhausted country.
After the last imperial decree, dated February 27, 1917, on the postponement of the Duma session, the Duma obeyed the decree, but having met privately and forming a temporary committee, an attempt was made to maintain the legitimacy of power and save the monarchy by changing the tsar, but unfortunately the attempt was unsuccessful .
The Duma played a leading role in the establishment of the Provisional Government. Under him, she worked under the guise of “private meetings.” The Bolsheviks more than once demanded its dispersal, but in vain. On October 6, 1917, the Provisional Government decided to dissolve the Duma in connection with preparations for elections to the Constituent Assembly. On December 18, 1917, one of the decrees of Lenin’s Council of People’s Commissars abolished the office of the State Duma itself.
What can you learn from the experience of the State Duma?
First lesson. Parliamentarism in Russia was undesirable for the ruling circles. Its formation and development took place in a sharp struggle against authoritarianism, autocracy, and the tyranny of the bureaucracy and executive power.
Lesson two. During the formation of Russian parliamentarism, valuable experience was accumulated in working and combating authoritarian tendencies in the activities of the authorities, which it would be unwise to forget today.
Military affairs The emergence of parliamentarism in Russia
In August 1905 ᴦ. The law on representation – the deliberative State Duma (“Bulygin project”) was published. But this no longer suited anyone. Under the direction of S.Yu. Witte a program of political reorganization was developed. According to the Manifesto on October 17, Russia received a legislative Duma. The emperor retained executive power.
A parliament appeared in Russia, consisting of two chambers: the upper house - the State Council; lower house – State Duma.
Half of the State Council was appointed by the tsar, and half was elected by corporations (organizations): zemstvos, noble assemblies, universities, etc.
The Duma was convened for 5 years. During elections, voters were divided into curiae, which nominated different numbers of deputies. 1 vote of the landowner = 3 bourgeois = 15 peasants = 45 workers. But even so, peasant deputies could make up 40%. The government did this deliberately, counting on the peasants’ faith in the tsar.
Deputies had the right to discuss bills, the budget, and also make requests to ministers. Military affairs, foreign policy and issues of the imperial court remained outside the control of parliament. From now on, a bill became law if it passed through the Duma, then through the State Council and, finally, signed by the emperor.
On the eve of the introduction of representation, a unified government was established - the Council of Ministers (now ministers had to jointly discuss bills and important events).
Programs of political parties
The October Manifesto legalized the existence of political parties in Russia. Already before the end of 1905 ᴦ. About 50 parties were officially registered. Let us consider the programs of the most influential political parties that emerged in Russia at the beginning of the 20th century. (see table)
Table
| The consignment | Tactics | Political program | Work question | Agrarian question | National question |
| RSDLP | |||||
| Year of foundation: 1898. Leaders: V.I. Lenin , L.D. Trotsky , G.V. Plekhanov , L. Martov | A combination of legal (press, elections to the State Duma) and illegal (preparation of an armed uprising) methods | Overthrow of the autocracy | Worker control. 8 hour work day. Freedom of strikes and walkouts. Improving living and working conditions | The Bolsheviks nationalized the land. The Mensheviks have municipalization | Bolsheviks: “The right of nations to self-determination up to and including secession” |
| AKP | |||||
| Year of foundation: 1902. Leader V.M. Chernov | Terror | Overthrow of the autocracy. Establishment of a Democratic Republic | 8 hour work day. Freedom of strikes and walkouts. Improving living and working conditions |
Socialization of the land | Federal structure of the country |
| PKD | |||||
| Year of foundation: 1905. Leader P.N. Miliukov | Legal methods | Constitutional monarchy or republic | Improving labor legislation. Prohibition of overtime work for women and children | Creation of a state land fund at the expense of state lands + alienation of leased land from landowners at a market price | Cultural-national autonomy. Wider rights for Poland and Finland |
| Octobrists | |||||
| Year of foundation: 1905. Leader A.I. Guchkov | Legal methods, use of personal connections | Duma monarchy | Relocation. Liquidation of the community | Cultural-national autonomy. Wider rights for Finland | |
| Monarchists | |||||
| “Union of the Russian People” (A.I. Dubrovin), “Union of the Archangel Michael” (V.M. Purishkevich) | Terror versus revolutionary terror | Restoration of an unlimited monarchy | Improving labor legislation | Preservation of landownership | Preservation of a united, indivisible Russia |
Activities of the I and II State Dumas
Activities of the First State Duma (April 27 – July 8, 1906). 448 deputies were elected to the First Duma. According to party composition, they were distributed as follows: cadets - 153, Octobrists - 13, non-party people - 105, peasant labor workers - 107, "autonomists" (deputies of national outskirts) - 63 and 7 others. However, cadets and those associated with them turned out to be 43%, Trudoviks - 23%, representatives of nationalist groups - 14%, a fifth of the deputies were represented by non-party members. The government's hopes that the peasants would be patriarchal did not come true. The village sent left-wing and liberal politicians to the Duma. The Duma turned out to be in opposition.
A cadet was elected Chairman of the First Duma S.A. Muromtsev.
The most important issue of discussion was agriculture.
At the same time, the Trudoviks demanded the announcement of a political amnesty, the abolition of the State Council, the expansion of the rights of the Duma (establishing the responsibility of the government not before the Tsar, but before the Duma).
Activities of the Second State Duma (February 20 – June 3, 1907 ᴦ.). Elections took place at the beginning of 1907. based old electoral law, in connection with this, the situation in the Second Duma was in general terms reminiscent of the situation in the First Duma.
Electoral Law of 1905: during elections, voters were divided into curiae, which nominated different numbers of deputies.
518 deputies were elected to the Duma, of which 66 Social Democrats, 37 Socialist Revolutionaries, 104 Trudoviks, 16 People's Socialists. 99 seats went to the Cadets, 44 to the Octobrists, 10 to the extreme right. A cadet was elected Chairman of the Second State Duma F. Golovin. This Duma worked for 102 days.
As before, the agrarian question remained central.
Due to the opposition of the Duma, bills that were not submitted to it for consideration from the government failed during the vote, just as proposals adopted by deputies could not pass a vote in the State Council.
June 3, 1907 ᴦ. It was announced the dissolution of the Second State Duma and a change in the election system.
The previous emphasis on the peasant was ended, and the representation of workers and nationalities was significantly reduced. The new vote ratio looked like this. 1 vote of the landowner = 4 big bourgeois = 68 small urban owners = 260 peasants = 543 workers.
It is the events of June 2–3 that are considered the end of the revolution. The fact is that these days the government is actually going for a coup d'etat, violating the law (the monarch did not have the right to change the electoral law without the Duma). At the same time, there was no reaction from society, which allows us to conclude that the revolution came to naught.
Juneteenth Monarchy
The internal political course established in the country after the dissolution of the Second State Duma and changes in the electoral law is usually called Juneteenth Monarchy, which became the last phase in the evolution of the Russian autocracy. The political system of this period combined elements of the new and the old, features parliamentarism and features classical autocracy. The transformations carried out during the revolution (the creation of the State Duma, etc.) marked a movement towards a rule of law state. At the same time, in the political life of the country, institutions and norms inherited from the past continued to play a huge, and in many ways, leading role. The social nature of the June Third monarchy was also distinguished by its duality. Although the nobility retained the status of the first estate of the empire, the transformations carried out in 1905–1907 opened up greater opportunities for the Russian bourgeoisie to influence the government of the country than it had before (to influence through the Duma). The Third State Duma, which met in the autumn of 1907, became the embodiment of the June Third system.
As a result of the elections, the right (Black Hundreds) received 146 parliamentary seats, the Octobrists - 155, the Cadets - 108, the Social Democrats - 20, the Trudoviks - 13 seats. The chairmen of the III State Duma were: ON THE. Khomyakov(until March 1910 ᴦ.), A.I. Guchkov (March 1910 - March 1911), M.V. Rodzianko (March 1911 – June 9, 1912).
In the Third Duma a unique mechanism of parliamentary Octobrist pendulum, which allowed the government to draw the line it wanted, maneuvering between the right and the left.
"Octobrist Mint". The Octobrist faction found itself in the political center of the Third State Duma. She was satisfied with the government's policy, and the fate of the decisions made largely depended on the position of her deputies. When voting on pro-government projects, the Octobrist faction voted together with the factions of the right and nationalists (the “pendulum” leaned to the right), and when voting on projects of reforms of a bourgeois nature, the Octobrists blocked with the Cadets and the factions adjacent to them (the “pendulum” leaned to the left).
During its entire work, the Duma discussed and adopted 2,432 legislative acts. The III State Duma worked for the entire period assigned to it and completed its work in 1912.
3. Activities of P.A. Stolypin and the socio-political situation in 1911–1914.
The creator of the new political system, of course, should be considered P.A. Stolypin.
Stolypin was a supporter of a strong monarchy and an influential landed nobility. Advocating for the speedy suppression of the revolution, he understood that this could not be limited to repressions alone, reforms were needed. To do this, he needed a Duma capable of cooperating with the government.
Stolypin’s words are well known: “First calm, then reforms.” It was according to this formula that he acted. In 1906 ᴦ. The fight against the revolutionary movement intensified. More details.
Ways to combat the revolutionary movement in 1906-1907:
- military courts were introduced (in which proceedings were conducted by several officers in an expedited manner without defense);
- the introduction of police agents into revolutionary organizations was widely used;
- the rights of the outskirts were curtailed.
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| Lawyers at the Lena mines. 1912 ᴦ. |
But at the same time, soon after his coming to power, Stolypin put forward an extensive program of reforms (he was not the author of all the proposals, but supported them by occupying a high post), the implementation of which should, in his opinion, make a new revolutionary explosion impossible.
The central place in Stolypin's program was occupied by plans for solving the agrarian question.
Agrarian reform of P. A. Stolypin:
Target: 1. Create a strong master on earth.
2. Distract the peasants from the revolution
1. Allow peasants to freely leave the community.
2. Creation of farms and cuts
3. Creation of a peasant credit bank
4. Resettlement of poor peasants to Siberia, the Far East and beyond the Urals.
At the same time, Stolypin’s “package of reforms” was not exhausted.
Proposals by P.A. Stolypin:
reorganization of the local government system. More details;
It was proposed to reorganize local government in order to increase the share of peasants in zemstvos and reduce the power of the leader of the nobility in the districts. The Ministry of Internal Affairs prepared a draft zemstvo reform, which provided for the weakening of strict bureaucratic control over local government. The reforms were also supposed to affect the judicial sphere, restoring the institution of justices of the peace and improving the local justice system. Already in 1906 ᴦ. Some restrictions that existed for the rural population (passports, entry into the civil service) were eliminated.
changes in the confessional sphere. More details.
On the confessional issue it was planned:
- relief of the situation of the Old Believers;
- the abolition of restrictions imposed on non-Orthodox churches;
- permission to convert from Orthodoxy to other Christian faiths;
- facilitating mixed marriages.
These elements, if implemented, were supposed to contribute to the modernization of the country.
At the same time, the Stolypin program met with serious opposition, primarily from the nobility: the proposals advocated by Stolypin threatened to end one of the last privileges of the Russian aristocracy - their predominance in local government.
As a result of the confrontation, only a tiny part of Stolypin’s program was implemented (not counting agrarian reforms). September 1, 1911 ᴦ. P.A. Stolypin was mortally wounded.
 |
| Meeting of the IV State Duma |
Death of P.A. Stolypin, the growing contradictions within the June Third political system, the freezing of solutions to social and political problems led to revival at the turn of 1910/1911. mass strike movement in the country. The shooting of a peaceful march of workers from the Lena gold mines in April 1912 had a significant impact on the development of the internal political situation in the country. If in 1912 ᴦ. the number of strikers in the country amounted to 1463 thousand people, then in 1913 ᴦ. – already 2 million.
In the autumn of 1912 ᴦ. Elections to the Fourth Duma took place. The Duma, elected according to the electoral law of 1907, differed little in composition from its predecessor. At the same time, the IV Duma had to work under different conditions than the Duma of the 3rd convocation (World War I, pre-revolutionary years), and it turned out to be much less loyal to the monarch and the government.
Stolypin was replaced as chairman of the Council of Ministers V.N. Kokovtsov. Minister of the Interior in 1912. became ON THE. Maklakov, monarchist by political convictions. Already at the beginning of 1914 ᴦ. V.N. Kokovtsov was dismissed, and the new head of government became I.L. Goremykin, also a right-winger.
Meanwhile, the strike movement did not subside in the country.
The revolution that began in July 1914 had a serious impact on the socio-political situation in the country. World War I.
Control questions:
1. Prerequisites for the revolution.
2. The essence of agrarian reform by P. A. Stolypin.
3. What served as the basis for the creation of a multi-party system in Russia?
Topic: Russia in the conditions of the First World War and the national crisis.
Goal: to reveal the internal political development of the country during the First World War and revolutions.
Plan:
1. Internal political development during the First World War