SYSTEMS APPROACH
TO THE STUDY OF MANAGEMENT OF ORGANIZATIONS
Modern scientific research in the field of organization management is systemic research.
Usually, a systems approach is considered as one of a number of methods for studying the management of an organization. Traditionally, the systems approach is considered in trinity with the process and situational approaches.
However, it is hardly reasonable to consider the systems approach as one of the many directions, which is an alternative or addition to other approaches to the study of management.
The system approach assumes that any object under study is:
- firstly, integrity, which has emergent properties generated by the interaction of its constituent elements;
- secondly, an element of the macrosystem, the position in which to a large extent determines its own state.
If these basic provisions are not taken into account systems approach, then other areas of management research will not allow obtaining truly objective scientifically based results.
Thus, the process approach can be scientific only on condition that the process is considered as a dynamic system, which is a set of interrelated and constituting a single whole stages. The situational approach can also give results only when the situation is analyzed as an integral set of interrelated factors that have a single integrated effect.
The systems approach is the general methodological basis of any other approaches to the study of management that exist and are implemented not along with it, but within its framework and in accordance with its principles.
The basis of the systems approach is the general theory of systems, which was initiated by the Australian biologist L. Bertalanffy. He saw the purpose of this science in the search for the structural similarity of the laws established in various disciplines, on the basis of which it is possible to derive system-wide patterns.
In this regard, the systems approach is one of the forms of methodological knowledge associated with the study and creation of objects as systems, and applies only to systems (the first feature of the systems approach).
The second feature of the systematic approach is the hierarchy of knowledge, which requires a multi-level study of the subject: the study of the subject itself is the “own” level; the study of the subject as an element of a wider system - the "superior" level and the study of the subject in relation to the elements that make up this subject - the "lower" level.
The next feature of the system approach is the study of the integrative properties and patterns of systems and complexes of systems, the disclosure of the basic mechanisms for integrating the whole.
A systematic approach requires considering the problem not in isolation, but in unity of links with environment, to comprehend the essence of each connection and individual element, to make associations between general and particular goals. All this forms a special method of thinking that allows you to flexibly respond to changes in the situation and make informed decisions.
Thus, systems approach- this is an approach to the study of an object (problem, phenomenon, process) as a system in which the elements, internal and external relations that most significantly affect the results of its functioning are identified, and the goals of each of the elements are determined based on the general purpose of the object.
In practice, to implement a systematic approach, it is necessary to provide for the following sequence of actions:
- formulation of the research task;
- identification of the object of study as a system from the environment;
- establishing the internal structure of the system and identifying external links;
- determination (or setting) goals for the elements based on the manifested (or expected) result of the entire system as a whole;
- development of a model of the system and conducting research on it.
Currently, many works are devoted to system research. What they have in common is that they are all devoted to solving systemic problems in which the object of research is presented as a system.
Principles of a systematic approach to the study of management.
1. The principle of integrity.
It consists in the presence of new emergent properties in the system, generated by the interaction of the elements that make up the system. This is the reason for the fundamental irreducibility of the properties of the system to the sum of the properties of its constituent elements.
2. The principle of compatibility of the elements of the whole.
A system can exist as a whole only when its constituent elements are compatible with each other. It is their compatibility that determines the possibility and existence of connections, their existence or functioning within the framework of the whole. At the same time, compatibility should be understood not just as a property of an element as such, but its property in accordance with the position and functional status in this whole, its relation to system-forming elements.
3. The principle of the functional and structural structure of the whole.
This principle suggests that when studying control systems, it is necessary to analyze and determine the functional structure of the system, i.e., to see not only the elements and their connections, but also the functional content of each of the elements.
In two identical systems with the same set of elements and their identical structure, the content of the functioning of these elements and their connections according to certain functions may be different.
The study of the functional content of the control system must necessarily include the definition of dysfunctions that characterize the presence of such functions that do not correspond to the functions of the whole and thus can disrupt the stability of the control system, the necessary stability of its functioning. Dysfunctions are, as it were, superfluous functions, sometimes outdated, having lost their relevance, but still exist due to inertia. They need to be identified during research.
4. The principle of labilization of functions.
In the process of development of the control system, its functions change, new functions are acquired with the relative stability of static characteristics (composition and structure). This phenomenon characterizes the concept of lability (instability) of the functions of the control system. In reality, the lability of control functions is observed quite often.
5. The principle of iteration.
Any research is a process that involves a certain sequence of operations, the use of methods, the evaluation of preliminary, intermediate and final results. This characterizes the iterative structure of the research process.
6. The principle of probabilistic estimates.
In management research, it is not always possible to accurately assess all causal relationships, i.e. present the object of study in a deterministic way. Many phenomena, connections and processes are probabilistic in nature. In order to systematically represent an object, it is necessary to use not only clearly determined, but also probabilistic estimates.
These principles of systematicity can only be useful and can reflect a truly systematic approach, when they themselves are taken into account and used systematically, that is, in interdependence and in connection with each other.
It is obvious that a systematic study of management should be based on a clear and justified definition of the very initial concept of "management system".
In general, the management system can be represented as a set of interrelated elements that ensure the implementation of the management process aimed at achieving the established goal. The control system is multidimensional. To understand it, one needs not a single definition, but a certain set of definitions. All identified aspects of management should have significant and independent significance, and all elements within each of the aspects should be integrated into a single whole.
Thus, the organization management system is:
- holistic unity of the types of activities that make up the management process: transformative, cognitive, value-oriented, communication and control;
- a set of general functions of organization management integrated into a single whole: planning, organizing, coordinating, motivating;
- a set of interacting units that implement management functions;
- a set of functionally separate areas of management activity.
STRUCTURE OF THE CONTROL SYSTEM
System management is multifaceted.
Firstly, the management system is an integral unity of the types of activities that make up the management process: transformative, cognitive, value-oriented, communication and control (Fig. 25). Without each of them, it is impossible to carry out any other activities. So without transformative activity, which is the control action of the subject of management on the object of management in order to obtain a useful result, neither the knowledge of this object of management, nor the value orientation, nor the implementation of communications are possible.
Rice. 25. Management system as an integral unity of types of management activities
Secondly, a management system is an integral set of functional subsystems of an organization, such as administration, planning, supply, marketing and others (Fig. 26). Separate implementation of individual management functions is impossible. They can only be realized in a mutually agreed unity.
Rice. 26. Management system as an integral unity of management functions
Third, management system is a set of interacting units that implement management functions: departments, bureaus, workshops and sections(Fig. 27). Only joint coordinated activities of all departments of the enterprise can ensure the rational functioning of the organization.
Rice. 27. Management system as a set of interacting units
Fourthly, the management system is a set of functionally separate areas of management activity. This involves the structuring of the organization's management system into functional subsystems, each of which represents a single holistic and focused on the implementation of a specific function education. Structurization processes can be carried out in three different forms and lead to the formation of three types of functional subsystems (Fig. 28).
1. Subject-specific structuring. The isolation of a subsystem within the framework of an organization's management system is the allocation of a certain subject-limited area. These subsystems include: personnel management (PM); production equipment maintenance management (MA); management of the formation and use of material and energy resources (UR); infrastructure management (IM); financial management (FM); management of the creation, implementation and maintenance of the product of production (SCP). Management actions within the subject-specific subsystems have a direct impact on the performance of the organization.
2. Process structuring. Separation of a functional subsystem involves the allocation of the area of implementation of a certain management process. The following subsystems can be considered as such subsystems: strategic management (MS), innovation management (IM), current planning (TP), activity preparation (PD), operational management (OC), accounting and control (A&C). The influence of management actions within the framework of the process-by-process subsystems on the performance of the organization is ensured by their implementation in specific subject areas. Thus, planning is able to have a formative influence on production results insofar as it is carried out in specific subject areas, that is, it is not only planning in general, but also planning of personnel, material and energy resources, the creation and sale of a product, etc.
Both subject-wise and process-by-process selected subsystems, in turn, are subdivided into subsystems of the second level. Moreover, each of these subsystems can also be structured on the basis of both subject-specific and process-by-process principles. For example, infrastructure management is subdivided, on the one hand, into repair management, tool management, transport management, etc., and, on the other hand, into planning, operational management, accounting, etc.
3.Structuring according to the essential properties of the organization. Thus, the following can be distinguished: performance management (PE), cost management (CS), quality management (QM), organization image management (OIM) and activity management (UA).
Functional subsystems of the third type occupy a special position in the management system of the organization as a whole. They are not able directly, by themselves, to ensure the implementation of the relevant management functions. This is possible only through the mediating participation of functional subsystems of the first and second types.
Thus, the “quality management” function can only be implemented by providing an appropriate level of implementation of a wide range of functions of the first and second types, in particular, such as innovation management, activity preparation, equipment maintenance management, personnel management, production product creation management. At the same time, the role of the functional subsystem of property management itself lies mainly in the clear orientation and coordination of the corresponding activities of other subject-by-subject and process-by-process allocated functional subsystems. In relation to quality management, this implies the formation of an appropriate orientation of the subsystems of innovation management, preparation of activities, personnel management, etc.
Activity management, as one of the functional subsystems of property management, is implemented through other subsystems of the organization's management system. Moreover, its implementation is carried out, practically, through the entire set of functional subsystems, including through the subsystems for managing other properties of the organization.
Rice. 28. Management system as a set of functionally separate areas of management activity
Fifth, the management system is the unity of the managing and managed subsystems of the organization, since the control function can be implemented only in the interaction of the object and the subject of control (Fig. 29). Therefore, we can talk about the fundamental coincidence of the contour of the management of the organization and the contour of the organization itself.
Rice. 29. The control system as a unity of control
and managed subsystems
Systems approach- the study of a specific object as a system, which includes all the constituent elements or characteristics of the organization ("input", "process", "output"). These include: methods of management, technology, management, personnel management, technical means of information management.
The connections of the object between the elements, the external connections of the object, allowing to consider it as a high-level subsystem, are considered.
functional approach- study of management functions that ensure the adoption of managerial decisions of a given level of quality at minimal cost, in the management of production.
Whole-of-government approach- to assess the results of management activities and the cost of maintaining the management apparatus.
Creative team approach– to find the most efficient and cost-effective way to improve the management system.
Research is carried out in the following cases:
when improving the management system of an operating organization
when developing a management system for a newly created organization
when improving the management system of production associations or enterprises during the period of reconstruction or technical re-equipment
when improving management systems due to changes in ownership.
Tasks of research as part of management:
achievement of an optimal relationship between the managed control subsystems (indicators of controllability standards, indicators of the effectiveness of the control apparatus, reducing management costs)
increasing the productivity of managerial employees and working production units
improving the use of material, labor, financial resources in the control and managed subsystems
reducing costs for products and services and improving their quality
As a result of the research, concrete proposals should be formulated to improve the organization's management systems.
Lecture 5 Methods of research of control systems. System analysis
System analysis is a discipline that deals with decision-making problems in conditions where the choice of an alternative requires the analysis of complex information of various physical nature (the formation of an analysis system in the late 19th and early 20th centuries).
The main stages of system analysis:
configurator definition
problem definition
target identification
formation of criteria
generation of alternatives
building and using models
optimization
decomposition
aggregation
Configurator- any complex phenomenon requires a versatile, multifaceted description, consideration from different points of view.
The configurator is an aggregate of states consisting of qualitatively different languages for describing the system and having the property that the number of these languages is minimal, but necessary for a given purpose. Example:
n- measured space: to set any point configurator is the set of its coordinates;
processes occurring in economic complexes: to characterize the output product of the production or service sector, 3 types of indicators are used: 1) natural (economic and technological); 2) monetary (financial and economic); 3) social value (political, ethical, aesthetic);
The activities of any organization (factory, institute, firm) can be described in these three languages that form the configuration.
organizational system design.
For the synthesis of the organizational system configurator descriptions: 1) distribution of power (structure, subordination); 2) distribution of responsibility (functioning structure); 3) distribution of information (organization of communication, accumulation of learning experience).
When you change the purpose of the study, the configuration will change.
Problems and goals:
a systematic study of any problem begins with its consideration before the problem, i.e. finding problem systems significantly related to the research, without taking into account which, it cannot be solved;
problem solving must be brought to mind while they become tasks of choosing suitable means to achieve given goals;
Target- a conscious image of the anticipated result, the achievement of which is aimed at human actions.
as the problem is solved, the goal may change, and in the final formulation it is very different from the original one.
The importance of a correctly chosen goal is that the choice of the wrong goal leads not so much to solving the problem, but to the emergence of new problems.
The main goals for management systems can be:
height sold products;
decline production cost;
release high quality products;
entering new markets sales of products, etc.
Criteria– a quantitative model of a qualitative goal.
When forming the criteria, a compromise is sought between the completeness of the description of the goal and the number of criteria.
Performance criteria- the degree to which the goal of the control system is achieved (it makes it possible to determine whether the control system works well or badly). The higher the level of the management system, the more difficult it is to formalize its goals and performance criteria.
The performance criteria for selection must meet the following conditions:
really measure the effectiveness of the management system
quantify the effectiveness of the management system
cover the largest number of results of the management system
differ in simplicity, but take into account the completeness of the results and costs associated with the management system.
Efficiency criteria share:
performance criteria of the first kind- the degree of achievement of the goal by the control system in a given area
performance criteria of the second kind– evaluation of efficiency on some given path to achieve the goal
It can be used to compare and evaluate various changes in the state of the system.
The efficiency criteria of the second rank is secondary to the efficiency criterion of the first rank.
single-criteria performance evaluations- independent, independent criteria of efficiency.
For many complex control systems, it is not possible to choose efficiency criteria of the first and second ranks. In this case, multi-criteria assessments of the effectiveness of the management system are applied.
Necessary condition- measurement of efficiency or the existence of a way to reduce this condition.
Examples of performance criteria for management systems:
maximum net discounted income (profit);
maximum growth in the volume of products sold;
minimum cost of production;
maximum internal rate of return;
minimum payback period of investments and r.
Generation of alternatives– formation of a set of alternatives, i.e. ideas about possible ways to achieve the goal is the most difficult and creative stage of the systematic approach.
Ways to form alternatives:
Construction and use of models.
search for alternatives in patent and journal literature;
attracting qualified experts with a variety of training and experience;
an increase in the number of alternatives due to their combination, the formation of intermediate options between those proposed earlier;
modifications to available alternatives;
stakeholder interviews and extensive questionnaire methods;
generation of alternatives calculated for different time intervals (long-term, short-term, etc.)
brainstorming method- built on a specific combination of methodology and research organization, and the use of research conditions - dreamers with researchers - analysts.
Brainstorming is carried out in two stages:
idea generation;
practical analysis of the ideas put forward.
A group of specially selected people gathers (the main selection principle is the diversity of professions, qualifications, experience, the ability of people to scientific imagination and developed intuition, intellectual looseness).
Any ideas (arising individually and improving other people's ideas) are welcome.
The most important conditions are that any criticism is prohibited (it slows down the imagination). Each participant writes down the idea on the cards, reads it out, and the rest listen and write down new thoughts on the cards (arising under the influence of what they heard).
the group maintains an atmosphere of ease, creativity, mutual acceptability;
you can express absolutely not real and fantastic ideas.
The main task of the first stage of brainstorming is to find as many different options as possible for solving the problem, ways to achieve the goal, ideas, thoughts.
At the second stage, the cards are collected, sorted and analyzed by a group of experts, analysts.
Basic selection principles:
no idea is excluded from the analysis, they are classified and generalized;
a group of analysts should consist of those who understand the essence of the problem well, have clear logical thinking and tolerance for other people's ideas;
to ensure the objectivity of the evaluation and analysis of the idea, clear criteria should be formulated that guide all members of the analytical group;
Of great importance is the personality and activities of the leader (the leader can be in the 1st and in the 2nd group or not).
The main qualities of the leader: goodwill, great creative activity, deep understanding of the problem being solved, the ability to organize and support the creative process.
The group is formed in the 3rd stage.
Selection by the potential of knowledge, education and experience;
selection according to the potential of creativity (type of thinking, emotional mood of the value system);
selection according to communication potentials.
For each stage, there are separate selection criteria and tests for the implementation of these criteria in the assessments of candidates.
Then the formed group learns some methods of joint activity. The main thing is to form an understanding of the method and confidence in its productivity, collectivism in solving the problem. Research type mastering the role of everyone in the synectic group.
The final stage: the organization of the productive activities of the group, the development of the problem of conducting research work.
Synectics method- arose in the process of practicing the study of the brainstorming method.
The essence is in the search and realization of the possibility of research by researchers based on the inclusion of unconscious mechanisms in the conscious study of the problem, on the basis of socio-psychological interaction in the process of intellectual activity.
A special group of "sinecters" is being formed.
The difference between the synectics method and the brainstorming method is the approach to researching and solving a problem not from the standpoint of putting forward ideas in their finished form and individual authorship, but in providing incomplete ideas and thoughts that feed collective thinking (ideas in the form of irrational information, metaphors, education vague sensations that act not so much on a person as not on his feelings, relationships in a group, activation of intuition).
Conditional optimization method - usually the criteria are interrelated, and improvement in one criterion leads to deterioration in the other.
Task: highlight the main criterion (the rest are additional, accompanying).
Decomposition- splitting into parts for the purpose of its detailed study. It is one of the main procedures of system analysis.
The task is divided into subtasks, the system is divided into subsystems, the goals are divided into subgoals, etc.
Aggregation is the establishment of relationships on a given set of elements.
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Saratov State Technical University
Institute of Business and Business Administration
Department of MML
Course work
By discipline:ANDcontrol systems research
On the topic of:ABOUTgeneral principles for the development of the management system
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Saratov 2008
Introduction
1. Management as a system
1.1. Management organization
1.2. Choice of organizational structure of management
2. System approach as a general methodological principle for the study of control systems
2.1. The concept and main features of a systematic approach
2.2. The essence of a systematic approach
3. Principles of research on the development of the management system
3.1. The principle of physicality and its postulates
3.2. The principle of modeling and its postulates
3.3. The principle of purposefulness and its postulates
Conclusion
Bibliography
Introduction
Management is the oldest art and the latest science. Experts in the field of management agree that management is part of large political, economic, technological, social and ethical systems and is based on its own concepts, principles and methods, that is, it has a serious scientific and methodological foundation.
Any science is a collection of knowledge and a constant search for new data about nature and society in order to understand and explain the phenomena and laws of nature, of which man himself is a part. In a new complex phenomenon, science seeks to determine its basis, which is usually ingeniously simple, to discover patterns hiding in apparent chaos. The main thing in the theory is not a detailed description of the object under study, but the study of its basic properties, the identification of general laws of relationships in order to provide the fundamental possibility of establishing new knowledge.
Management, in the broad sense of the term, is a continuous process of influencing the object of management (personality, team, technological process, enterprise, state) to achieve optimal results with the least amount of time and resources. Every specialist in the field of management must master the theory, practice and art of management, be able to clearly define the goals of their activities, determine the strategy and tactics necessary to achieve them.
The functions of a leader have become much more complicated in our time. Now he not only has to think about the production and economic management of his enterprise, firm, but also constantly solve long-term, strategic issues that used to be decided at the level of the head office or ministry. Without studying the market, without finding a place for their products on it, without innovative investments and a bank loan, the enterprise is doomed.
Problematic tasks appear before the manager: the introduction of new technologies, the organization of the release of new, competitive goods, not formal, but actual attention to the quality of products, the solution of a complex of social issues, the search for new methods of stimulating labor, the development of self-government and at the same time strengthening unity of command and discipline. And one more new and very important - risk, responsibility. Managers are forced to independently solve a number of new production problems, such as defining strategic goals and management objectives, developing detailed plans to achieve these goals, decomposing tasks into specific operations, coordinating the activities of the enterprise with other companies and firms, constantly improving the hierarchical structure, optimizing the adoption procedure. management decisions, finding the most effective management styles and improving the motivation of employees.
1. Management as a system
Each object of management (state, industry, enterprise, team, individual) is characterized by significant features, differences, but scientific methods of management have in their arsenal general principles and methods of influencing any managed object. The theory, practice and art of management are used by the manager to achieve the goal of his activity and allow him to develop a strategy, a set of tools and methods for solving the set tasks with personal responsibility for the management decisions made. Determination of goals, management strategies and implementation of the decisions made with the help of the production team constitute the main set of functional duties of the manager.
Each of the managed objects is a system consisting of separate, but interconnected parts, elements. Moreover, the system acquires new properties that its constituent elements do not possess.
Management ensures continuous and targeted impact to a controlled object, which can be a technological installation, a team or an individual. Management is a process, and the management system is a mechanism that ensures this process. Any dynamic process in which people can also participate consists of separate procedures, operations and interrelated stages. Their sequence and interrelation constitute the technology of the management process. Strictly speaking, management technology consists of information, computational, organizational and logical operations performed by managers and specialists of various profiles according to a certain algorithm manually or using technical means. Management technology is the methods, order, regulations for the implementation of the management process.
The science of management allows you to systematize, analyze the management process, and develop recommendations for its optimization. Fundamentally, the control process is characterized by two main components: the control system and the control object. These components can be a leader and a subordinate, a dispatcher and factory floors, a human brain and organs controlled by it through the nervous system. The main feature of the management process is the unity and interconnectedness of its components, which is provided by feedback. In this case, the control is carried out in a closed loop.
Information about the state of the controlled object is sent via the feedback channel to the comparison body of the system, which can make the necessary adjustments to the control process.
There are technical systems (energy systems, oil pipelines, gas pipelines, information and computer network, technological process, etc.), socio-economic systems (individual enterprises, industries, transport systems, services and trade, etc.) and separately allocate especially complex systems - organizational, the main element of which is a person - the element itself is complex, active and far from always predictable.
To optimize and especially automate management, it is necessary to develop formalized models, but it is very difficult, and sometimes impossible, to create a model of an organizational system. However, in organizational systems, it is the person who makes the management decisions.
For the purposeful management of an object, the manager must have information about its condition with the help of instruments or through performers. This information is sent to the manager via a feedback channel, compared with the required mode of operation, and, if necessary, control signals are sent to the controlled object. The object of control can be not only a technical device, a production line, but also such highly complex controlled systems as a team, family, individual. In this case, the control of the system is often very difficult, requiring a lot of experience, knowledge and skill, since its reactions to control commands are often inadequate.
In automatic control systems, the technological process is carried out without the direct participation of a person. In these cases, the role of a person is transferred to the regulator, which, based on the information received, makes an appropriate decision.
1.1 Management organization
Organization - providing management function, aimed at creating the necessary conditions for achieving goals. The main tasks of the organization: the formation of the structure of the organization and the provision of its activities with finances, equipment, raw materials, materials and labor resources. When changing environmental conditions, it is often necessary to rebuild the organizational structure in order to improve its compliance with the needs of flexible production, simplify it, or, conversely, introduce new structural elements. The main indicator of a high management organization is its quick response to changes in the external environment, its particular sensitivity to the achievements of scientific and technological progress, and to market conditions.
The term "organization" (from lat. organize - I give a slim look, I arrange) has a double meaning. The organization as a management function ensures the ordering of the technical, economic, socio-psychological and legal aspects of the activity of the managed system at all its hierarchical levels. At the same time, another meaning of this word is a kind of association, a team whose efforts are aimed at achieving specific goals common to all members of this team. But any organization must have such important resources as capital, information, materials, equipment and technology. Equally important for the successful operation of the organization is the presence of stable ties between members of the team, common to all rules and a culture of behavior. The success of an organization depends on complex, variable environmental factors: economic conditions applied techniques and technologies, competing organizations, communication with consumers, the current marketing system, government and legal acts, etc.
The managerial activity of a person largely depends on organizational principles, the wisest order will only be a fiction, if its execution is not organized, its goal is not clear to the performer or it is not supported by motivation.
The task of organizing management at any level can be defined as ensuring the transition from the existing state to the desired one. If in the n-dimensional space we designate any desired economic or other indicators and their values by vectors (а 1 , a 2 , ..., a n), then the task of organizing management is to determine the ways by which it is possible to translate with the least cost and in the shortest possible time, the indicators actually available (b 1 , b 2 , ..., b n) into the planned state. The theoretical foundation of scientific issues of organization and management of production are the methods of cybernetics, systems theory, systems engineering, praxeology and bionics. Very fruitful from a theoretical and practical point of view was the proposal of well-known American specialists in the field of management T. Peters and R. Waterman to consider the organization as a unity of seven basic variables: structures, strategies, systems and management procedures, joint, i.e. shared by all, value attitudes, the totality of acquired skills, skills, management style and composition of employees, i.e. personnel systems.
On fig. Figure 5 shows the well-known 7-C, ("happy atom"), which allows you to visualize the main components and problems of the organization.
1.2 Choice of organizational structure of management
Structure (lat. structura - structure) - a form of organization of the system, the unity of stable relationships between the elements that make up the system.
Any complex system is built on a hierarchical, multi-level principle. The control level is determined by the elements of the system that are equally remote from the upper structural link and have similar rights. To implement the management functions of the system, a special apparatus is created, the structure of which is determined by its constituent links and the number of hierarchical levels of management. The management structure should ensure the unity of stable links between its components and the reliable functioning of the system as a whole. This provision applies to the activities of any production team, any society, including family relations.
Reasonably created structure of the control system largely determines its effectiveness, as it ensures the stability of the links between the many components of the control object and ensures the integrity of the system. It connects the individual elements of the system into a single whole, significantly affects the forms and organization of planning, operational management, methods of organizing work and their coordination, makes it possible to measure and compare the performance of each link in the system.
In complex systems, the whole is greater than the sum of their constituent elements, the properties and capabilities of the whole exceed the properties and capabilities of their parts (the well-known law of synergy). That is, the properties of the system differ from the algebraic sum of the properties that make up the system of elements. Features of the synergistic effect are described by an amazing formula: 2+2=5. When this abstraction, strange at first glance, is transferred to the real world of production activity, the total income from the activities of a large enterprise turns out to be higher than the sum of the return indicators for each of its branches (especially if resources common to all departments of the enterprise are used and complementarity is ensured). Here it is worth noting that if the main parameters of the elements and even the order of their interaction are known, then it is impossible to draw conclusions about the properties of the system as a whole.
The practical value of studying the synergistic effect lies in the use of the unique properties of large systems - self-organization and the ability to determine a very limited number of parameters that can be controlled by the system (order parameters).
There are many types of management structures: patriarchal, linear, functional, staff, matrix, there are even divisional and product structures.
In modern Russia, the structure of the economy and the system of its management have a clearly expressed three-tier character: public administration - corporations and branch joint-stock companies - medium and small enterprises. Corporations are forced to create powerful management structures for long-term analysis and planning, development of research programs and scientific and technological developments, patent and licensing activities, collection and processing of a wide variety of information, and organization of marketing and sales research. Especially deep studies of the optimality of management decisions are carried out by transnational companies that create subsidiaries in other countries.
The problem of choosing the type of enterprise management structure has become very relevant for enterprises and firms in modern Russia. The vast majority of failures in production management is primarily due to the imperfection of the organizational structure of management. At the dawn of modern Russian entrepreneurship, this question was of little interest to anyone, since the new firms created were, as a rule, with a small number of employees and were easy to manage. Naturally, at that time the most common were "flat" structures, when the manager worked directly with subordinates, without intermediaries. But, as Mikhail Kuznetsov, financial director of the Party company, quickly became convinced and then repeatedly spoke about this, with an increase in the number of personnel, sole management becomes impossible and it becomes necessary to put vertical structures into action. The simplest two-level "flat" vertical structure, as the most flexible, adequately responding to changes in the situation, remains very common among Russian production management structures to this day. In such systems, information is less susceptible to distortion, since information channels are shorter and its transformation during the transition from one level of control to another is minimal.
Further development of the enterprise requires the adoption of new structural decisions, a transition is being made from a functional structure, for example, to a divisional one, which is an amalgamation of several functional structures (from the English division - division). Enterprises with a divisional management structure make strategic decisions at the corporate level (financial management, marketing, capital investments, etc.), but their functional, or subsidiaries, divisions have sufficient independence, carry out their planning, marketing activities, personnel policy. But at the same time, the number of managerial personnel inevitably grows, most often up to 25–30% of the number of employees, and, accordingly, the costs of maintaining it grow. The goals and objectives of the "top" of the multilevel hierarchy and the subdivisions do not always coincide.
The divisional structure of management is successfully used in those organizations that operate in various business areas (diversification of activities) and cover vast geographical regions. With a high level of diversification, large corporations use one of the varieties of the divisional structure - the product structure, where management is carried out according to the main range of products. With this structure, management functions are transferred to a manager who is entirely responsible for the production and marketing of a certain type of product, a small product-specific firm is formed within a large corporation.
In international companies, a matrix management system has become widespread, combining the advantages of large companies with a developed functional structure and small firms with their operational, mobile management structures. Under the matrix system, an enterprise has dual subordination - according to a functional and territorial basis: with significant operational independence.
More professional, but difficult to implement, is the method of organizational economic and mathematical modeling. It is based on the development of algorithms for the main functions of the enterprise under the conditions of the criteria for optimal control and the existing system of restrictions. This method makes extensive use of mathematical formalization methods, which makes it easy to switch to computer programming and analysis of organizational structure options using computer technology.
A three-level management structure has been preferred in Russia. This is how the vast majority of small and medium enterprises operate.
An analysis of the activities of leading companies and firms in modern Russia shows that their organizational structures are in constant dialectical development.
Behind last years In Russia, another form of the organizational structure of production management has become widespread - industrial holdings. It is more convenient for enterprises, usually in the same industry, to control joint activities and solve issues of common strategic planning, while maintaining their economic and legal independence. Holdings do not deal with the problems of production activities, but on their own behalf they can conclude commercial agreements and contracts, which is especially beneficial when entering international markets. The most common method of setting up a holding company is to own controlling stakes or other securities in industrial firms. The holder of a controlling stake has the ability to control the course of production and marketing of products of the enterprises included in the holding.
A reasonable choice of the type of organizational structures depends on a balanced analysis of many factors: the possibility of using computer technology to analyze structures, the development strategy of an enterprise for the period under study, the amount of work performed, and, finally, the production experience of managerial personnel. The simplest and most frequently used method of choosing an organizational structure is to study the structures of successfully developing related enterprises. Another method - the development of a new structure is carried out on the basis of the recommendations of professional consultants and experts. The methods of structuring goals and organizational modeling are less commonly used.
Any, even the most perfect management structure is doomed to change and further improvement. The sooner the governing bodies determine the need for these changes, the more effective the management process will be, the less the threat of stagnation and regression of the system will be. The reason for the inevitability of new organizational relations and the corresponding management structures lies in the constant development and redistribution of functions between the elements of the management system, obsolescence of the structure and in such a powerful catalyst for social, economic and managerial changes as scientific and technological progress (replacement of equipment, development of new products and technologies ).
The optimal organizational structure, corresponding to dynamic changes in the external environment, is able to solve the following tasks: coordination of the work of all functional services of the enterprise, a clear definition of the rights and obligations, powers and responsibilities of all participants in the management process. Timely adjustment of the structure helps to improve the efficiency of the enterprise, and a reasonable choice of organizational structure largely determines the management style and quality of labor processes.
2. System approach as a general methodological principle for the study of control systems
2.1 The concept and main features of a systematic approach
The study of objects and phenomena as systems caused the formation of a new scientific methodology - a systematic approach used in various fields of science and human activity.
The epistemological basis (epistemology is a branch of philosophy that studies the forms and methods of scientific knowledge) of the systems approach is the general systems theory, which was initiated by the Australian biologist L. Bertalanffy. He saw the purpose of this science in the search for the structural similarity of the laws established in various disciplines, on the basis of which one can derive system-wide patterns.
Consider the main features of a systematic approach. The systems approach is one of the forms of methodological knowledge associated with the study and creation of objects as systems, and applies only to systems (the first feature of the systems approach).
The second feature of the systematic approach is the hierarchy of knowledge, which requires a multi-level study of the subject: the study of the subject itself is the “own” level; the study of the same subject as an element of a wider system - the "superior" level, and, finally, the study of this subject in relation to the elements that make up this subject - the "lower" level.
The third feature of the system approach is the study of the integrative properties and patterns of systems and systems complexes, the disclosure of the basic mechanisms for the integration of the whole.
And finally, the fourth feature of the systematic approach is its focus on obtaining quantitative characteristics, the creation of methods that narrow the ambiguity of concepts, definitions, and estimates.
In other words, a systematic approach requires considering the problem not in isolation, but in the unity of relations with the environment, to comprehend the essence of each connection and individual element, to make associations between general and particular goals. All this forms a special method of thinking that allows you to flexibly respond to changes in the situation and make informed decisions.
In view of the foregoing, we define the concept of a systematic approach.
A systematic approach is an approach to the study of an object (problem, phenomenon, process) as a system in which elements, internal and external relations are identified that most significantly affect the results of its functioning, and the goals of each of the elements are determined based on the general purpose of the object .
2.2 The essence of the systems approach
In practice, to implement a systematic approach, it is necessary to provide for the following sequence of actions:
the formulation of the research problem;
identification of the object of study as a system from the environment;
Establishment of the internal structure of the system and identification of external links;
Defining (or setting) goals for the elements based on the manifested (or expected) result of the entire system as a whole;
development of a model of the system and conducting research on it.
Currently, many works are devoted to system research. All of them consider the solution of systemic problems in which the object of research is presented as a system.
System tasks can be of two types: System analysis or system synthesis. The tasks of the analysis are the determination of the properties of the system according to the known structure, the study of the properties of an already existing formation. The tasks of synthesis are the determination of the structure of the system by its properties, i.e. creation of a new structure, which should have the desired properties.
Consider the features of the implementation of a systematic approach.
Any research is preceded by its formulation, from which it should be clear what needs to be done and on the basis of what to do it.
In the formulation of the research problem, one should try to distinguish between general and particular plans. The general plan determines the type of task - analysis or synthesis. A particular task plan reflects the functional purpose of the system and describes the characteristics to be investigated.
In any system, each element of its structure functions on the basis of some of its goals. When it is identified (or formulated), one should be guided by the requirement of subordination to the overall goal of the system. It should be noted here that the particular goals of the elements are not always consistent with the ultimate goals of the system itself.
Complex systems are usually studied on models. The purpose of modeling is to determine the system's responses to influences, the boundaries of the system's functioning, and the effectiveness of control algorithms. The model should allow for the possibility of variations in the number of elements and relationships between them for the purpose of research various options system building. The process of studying complex systems is iterative in nature, and the number of possible approximations depends on a priori knowledge about the system and the rigidity of the requirements for the accuracy of the results obtained.
Based on the research conducted, recommendations are made:
by the nature of the interaction between the system and the environment;
by the structure of the system, types of organization and types of links between elements;
according to the law of system control.
The main practical task of the system approach in the study of control systems is to, having discovered and described complexity, also substantiate additional physically realizable connections that, being imposed on a complex control system, would make it controllable within the required limits, while maintaining such areas of independence. that improve the efficiency of the system.
3. Principles of research on the development of the management system
Methodology is usually defined as a certain set of scientific principles that provides the research process with the necessary set of methods and techniques, through which the essence of the economic phenomenon or process under consideration, its driving forces and development vector are clarified.
To study the process of transformation of the administrative-legal system of regional management into a new market management system at the stage of its transitional and crisis state, a number of scientists define the following methodological principles.
The first principle is that the Russian economy as a whole and the economy of the regions are considered by them as a certain part of the world geo-economic and geopolitical space, setting its general direction and principles of development, but requiring maximum consideration of national interests and historical features of development.
The second principle is that the choice of an effective model for managing a region depends on the theoretical and practical recognition of the advantages of the "European" or "Asian" model of building economic theory as the most adequate to Russian realities, as well as on those organizational and legal forms that are chosen for the commercial activities of enterprises in the region and its non-profit organizations.
The third methodological principle is to recognize management as a specific type of economic activity of the functions of renewal and rejection.
In the conditions of aggravation of economic, political, religious and personal relations associated with the transition to post-industrial society and a new vector of movement of the modern world economy, "Russia's choice of its own path of socio-economic and political development of society and regions is one of the most important historical tasks, the solution of which will determine for many years the place and role of the Russian state in the global geo-economic space."
The importance of choosing such a path of development lies in the fact that "at present, Russia's role in the global geo-economic order has not yet been determined - it is at the stage of" troubled times "and faces a historical choice. It will have to choose one of the options for a possible geostrategy. The first is acceptance of the status of a semi-peripheral country, relying only on the market for economic development, which naturally leads to the transformation into a raw material appendage of developed countries; the second is to become a highly developed and prosperous power. reforms in China, and this must happen either in a radical adjustment of the course of reforms or as a result of a social explosion."
The correctness of the forthcoming choice of the path of development will be determined by the strategy of socio-economic transformations that the Russian government has outlined for the period up to 2010.
Without denying the importance of the whole range of planned activities, we note two key points.
The first is the need to restructure the economy of the country and regions. And the second point is the formation of an effective management system at all levels of management. Not only will the entry of the Russian economy into the complex and contradictory world of market relations depend on the solution of these tasks, but, no less important, it will become manageable. As an analysis of the course of economic reforms in Russia shows, most of the tasks outlined since 1990 to transform the Russian economy and increase the level of its manageability have not been resolved, as a result of which the private sector has not become the locomotive of economic progress, decentralization of management has not been replaced by the action of specific market mechanisms. . Under these conditions, they are looking for ways to improve the efficiency of economic management based on the experience of the leading industrial countries of the world. The fact that the management of the economy of the country and regions is indeed the central link in a complex chain of economic processes can be judged by a number of scientific publications and journalistic materials.
The methodological basis for building a new management system should be those general theoretical principles on the basis of which the developed model will:
Firstly, to correspond to the nature and level of development of social production, both in the country and in the regions;
· secondly, to reflect and most fully implement the goals of the development of a managed economic system;
· thirdly, to integrate the various economic interests of all participants in the economic process into economic behavior;
· fourthly, to express all cost categories of production in monetary forms as the final economic forms of the reproduction process;
· fifthly, to optimize the combination of factors of regional production and ensure the efficiency of their use in all phases of social reproduction;
· Sixthly, to ensure high motivation of employees and their orientation towards highly efficient work.
As you can see, the current system Russian management economics and its structural subdivisions is based on far from all of the listed theoretical principles and therefore needs a certain analysis.
In connection with the search for new theoretical approaches to the study of economic management problems, an increasing number of foreign and Russian scientists are paying attention to the experience of those countries that have provided a more effective mechanism for managing the national economy than Europe and the United States. Naturally, their attention is drawn to Japan and China, where, since the middle of the 20th century, a new methodology of economic science, different from the European one, began to take shape.
In recent years, a number of scientific papers have appeared on various problems of control theory, in which the authors reveal the essence of the concept of "control" and its relationship with the controlled system in different ways.
So, L. N. Suvorov and A. N. Averin believe that "management as an objectively existing process arises only at the stage of social self-movement of matter, i.e. with the advent of man and society", and that it is "actions that ensure ordering and controlling the activities of people and their communities within a particular social system" Knorring V.I. Theory, practice and art of management. - M.: NORMA, 2001.
There are two important methodological points to note in this definition.
The first is that management is associated only with human activity and therefore has a social character.
Grazhdan V.D. gives a slightly different definition of management, according to which "management includes not only a change in the order, what is, but also the" design "of new parts and properties in the process of development, as well as the focus on eliminating the old, obsolete."
The content of modern management (management) was successfully noticed by Kuznetsov Yu.V. and Podlesnykh V.I., in the opinion of which "unlike all previous methods of managing collective actions, constant updating is built into management. The historical periodization of management confirms and shows the dependence of its development on external conditions and, above all, on the historical stage of the development of society" .
Thus, management is such a management system that, with its functions, is designed to reproduce a managed organization on an expanded basis, providing it with qualitative changes specified from the outside.
3.1 The principle of physicality and its postulates
The principle of physicality: any system (regardless of its nature) has inherent laws, possibly unique, that determine the internal cause-and-effect relationships of its existence and functioning.
The principle of physicality includes several postulates.
postulate of integrity. A complex management system must be considered as a whole.
A system is not a set of subsystems, but an integral object that allows various divisions into subsystems. Therefore, the system is not identical to any of its elements (subsystems).
The essence of the postulate of integrity is that neither in composition, i.e. combining subsystems into a system, nor during decomposition, i.e. division of the system, a system of concepts is not allowed, and also that composition and decomposition should be carried out in order to generate information characterizing the system of higher quality.
The identification of integrity requires taking into account all the relationships within the system, as well as the system with the environment. It is necessary to identify the system property, its content, the mechanism of formation, factors that prevent its occurrence or reduce its level. It is necessary to understand what properties of subsystems are suppressed by a general system property, what is the mechanism of this suppression, and under what conditions it loses its force.
The application of the postulate of integrity consists in the disclosure and accumulation of information about system properties at all stages of the study and in their generalization into concepts, and then in the application of these concepts to subsystems when studying them separately after decomposition. The rationality of decomposition is evaluated on the basis of the definition of integrity: if decomposition is unsuccessful, system and subsystem concepts cannot be linked, continuity is lost between them, they are unstable and produce a random impression.
The system has a special, systemic property that subsystems do not have with any decomposition method.
Postulate of systems decomposition. The analysis and synthesis of a complex control system is carried out by dividing it into subsystems arranged by levels, and a subsystem at a given level is a system at a lower level and, in turn, is considered as an element of a higher level. The principle of decomposition makes it possible to reduce the level of complexity of the system under study.
The values of the properties of the system being synthesized are determined in the course of a multilevel decision-making procedure, starting with those considered within the framework of a system of a higher rank and ending with the detailed properties of the elements of the system being synthesized.
The postulate of autonomy. From the point of view of the postulate of integrity, the diversity of decomposition helps to identify system properties. From the point of view of the postulate of autonomy, most decompositions, and maybe all but one, will disappear.
3.2 The principle of modelability and its postulates
Simulation principle: a complex system can be represented by a finite set of models, each of which reflects a certain facet of its essence.
This important principle makes it possible to explore a certain property of a complex system using one or more simplified models. A model focused on a certain group of properties of a complex system is always simpler than the system itself. Creating a complete model for a complex system is always useless, as such a model will be just as complex as the system.
The principle of modeling includes several postulates.
Action posture. To change the behavior of the system, an increase in the impact that exceeds a certain threshold value is required.
A change in the behavior of a complex system can be associated with energy, with matter and information, which, accumulating, show their influence in leaps and bounds, through a qualitative transition. Simultaneous energy and information impact can lead to the same result as the energy of a higher level.
Thus, the threshold is a function of three variables: the amount of a certain substance, the amount of energy, and the amount of certain information.
The reaction of the system to external influence has a threshold character.
The uncertainty postulate. There is an area of uncertainty within which the properties of the system can only be described by probabilistic characteristics.
An increase in the accuracy of determining any quantitatively described property of a complex system over a certain limit entails a decrease in the possible accuracy of determining another property. It is impossible to simultaneously measure the values of two parameters with an accuracy exceeding a certain level.
The maximum accuracy of determining the properties of a system depends on the inherent system of uncertainty, within which an increase in the accuracy of determining one property entails a decrease in the accuracy of determining another.
Complementarity postulate. Complex systems, being in different environments, can exhibit different system properties, including alternative ones (i.e., incompatible in any of the situations separately).
The observer perceives some facets of an entity in some conditions and other entities in others.
Postulate of diversity of models. Determining the characteristics of the system at all levels is carried out using a variety of models, which generally differ in the mathematical dependencies and physical laws used. The choice of models depends on the purpose of analysis and synthesis and the characteristics of the system under study.
Level matching postulate. The requirements for the system, formed at any level, act as conditions (or restrictions) for the choice of particular models and the limiting capabilities of the system at the lower levels. If it is impossible to meet the requirements, the conditions are adjusted.
The postulate of external complement. Verification of the validity of the results obtained at each level is carried out using the initial data, models and methods of higher levels. This postulate is fundamental to general theory systems, and its observance is a necessary condition for obtaining the right solutions at all levels of system research.
Sufficiency postulate. The sequence of levels for determining the required characteristics in the process of improving a complex system is selected in order of increasing costs for improving the system, with checking the sufficiency of the decisions made according to the specified efficiency criteria. The postulate of sufficiency is realized, as a rule, by using suitability criteria and developing appropriate models, with the help of which constructive decisions are made at each level of choosing system characteristics.
The postulate of proven methodological support. For the analysis and synthesis of the control system, it is necessary to use well-established and experimentally verified models and techniques that provide individual characteristics of the system within the specified time frame and with the required accuracy.
3.3 The principle of purposefulness and its postulates
Purposefulness of the system- a functional tendency aimed at achieving a certain state by the system or at strengthening (or maintaining) a certain process.
At the same time, the system is able to withstand external influences, as well as use the environment and random events.
The principle of purposefulness includes the postulate of choice.
The postulate of choice. A complex system has the ability to choose behavior, and, therefore, it is impossible to unambiguously predict and extrapolate its state under any a priori knowledge of the properties of the system and situations.
A complex system builds its behavior in significant connection with the situation. Therefore, this behavior can be influenced. The most common are ergatic systems, for which the postulate of choice comes to the fore. The knowledge and practical use of this postulate has two aspects.
The first concerns the promotion or suppression of "freedom" of choice. In research, search, creative systems, the choice should be maximum - it expands the range of activities. Executive systems should be able to choose within the task or not have it at all.
The second aspect is related to the number of choice descriptions, its formal presentation, qualitative or quantitative assessment, and the use of this assessment in solving more general problems.
Complex control systems have the ability to choose and have the ability to choose behavior, i.e. respond to external influences depending on internal criteria of purposefulness; no a priori knowledge allows either the supersystem or the system itself to unambiguously predict this choice.
The postulate of choice allows a complex control system, in accordance with its purposefulness, to use rare favorable events that occur in interaction with the environment, blocking other events and processes.
The principles of physicality, modelability, purposefulness and their postulates fully reflect the methodology of the system approach to the study of control systems.
Conclusion
Scientific and technological progress has created a new situation in the world of choosing alternatives for creating new systems, this is due to the following circumstances:
The life cycle of a human-created system has become much shorter than a human life;
The reduction in the life cycle of a human-created system is accompanied by an increase in full cycle creating a system;
The presence of a problem of investment of funds and resources.
The scale of man-made systems has grown. Some of them, for example, energy, transport, information, have become global. With the growing complexity and scale of the creation of a new system, the costs of their implementation have increased. The risk when choosing the option of creating a new system is becoming more and more tangible.
The basis for extending the life cycle of the system is its timely and repeated modernization, the ideas of which are laid down at the stage of creating the system.
Therefore, in order to give a system some property, it is necessary to build its subsystem, interconnected with all other subsystems, the general goal of which will be the effective manifestation of this property and, of course, ensuring its manifestation.
The significance of any property of the system will depend primarily on the significance of the subsystem that manifests it and ensures this manifestation.
Establishing relationships between properties and processes is even more difficult. Revealing the totality of these relationships, establishing the relationship between the properties of the system and processes, their indicators is the most important task in the study of control systems.
Isolation of the essential properties of processes and systems is basically a creative process, it is informal in nature and largely depends on the qualifications of the researcher, his experience and intuition. Part of the properties is determined by the researcher when developing requirements, since the latter are presented to the values of indicators of the essential properties of the system or process.
An important point is the formation of the rules for determining the fact and magnitude of the discrepancy between the values of the indicators of the essential properties of the system process and their required values.
Having considered the unified principles of the existence and operation of complex control systems (the principle of physicality, the principle of modeling and the principle of purposefulness), we can draw the following conclusions:
The system has a special, systemic property that subsystems do not have with any decomposition method;
The reaction of the system to external influence is of a threshold nature;
The maximum accuracy of determining the properties of a system depends on the inherent system of uncertainty, within which an increase in the accuracy of determining one property entails a decrease in the accuracy of determining another;
complex control systems have the ability to choose and have the ability to choose behavior, i.e. respond to external influences depending on internal criteria of purposefulness; no a priori knowledge allows either the supersystem or the system itself to unambiguously predict this choice.
The establishment of the internal structure is not only an operation of the initial stage of the study, it will be refined and changed as the studies are carried out. This process distinguishes complex systems from simple ones, in which the elements and relationships between them do not change during the entire research cycle.
The main task in the study of control systems is to, having discovered and described complexity, also substantiate additional physically realizable connections that, being imposed on a complex control system, would make it controllable within the required limits, while maintaining such areas of independence that contribute to improve the efficiency of the system.
The included new feedbacks should strengthen the favorable and weaken the unfavorable trends in the behavior of the control system, preserving and strengthening its purposefulness, but at the same time orienting it to the interests of the supersystem.
Bibliography
1. Anfilatov V.S. System analysis in management: a tutorial. - M.: Finance and statistics, 2003.
2. Glushchenko V.V., Glushchenko I.I. Research of control systems - LLC SPC "KRYLYA", 2004.
3. Malin A.S., Mukhin V.I. Research of control systems - M.: State University Higher School of Economics, 2002.
4. Volkov Yu.G., Polikarpov V.S. multidimensional world modern man. - M., 1998.
5. Grabaurov V.A. "Information technologies for managers". - M.: Finance and statistics, 2001.
6. Gutman G.V., Miroedov A.A., Fedin S.V. Management of the regional economy. - M.: Finance and statistics, 2001.
7. Knorring V.I. Theory, practice and art of management. - M.: NORMA, 2001.
8. Kuznetsov Yu.V., Podlesnykh V.I. Fundamentals of management. - St. Petersburg: Yublis, 1997.
9. Molodchik A.V. Management: strategy, structure, personnel. - M.: HSE, 1997.
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Consideration of the organization as a socio-economic system allows us to describe and reveal many properties and features of the organization.
The concept of a system emphasizes orderliness, integrity, and the presence of certain patterns.
For the first time, Ludwig von Betalanffy gave the idea of a system as a set of elements that are in certain relationships with each other and with the environment.
Then, with the transition to the study of socio-economic systems, the most important thing was shown - any such system exists in relation to the goal. It “lives and develops” only in relation to one general goal, and when it is no longer able to ensure its achievement, the system ceases to exist in this form, it “dies off”. In this case, the life cycle of an organization goes through several stages: creation, growth, maturity, decline.
In other words, in the term system at different stages of its consideration, one can invest different concepts, to talk as if about the existence of the system in different forms.
In our case, we consider the organization as an open system interacting with the external environment (Fig. 4.1.)
Rice. 1.2. Representation of the system in the external environment
From the standpoint of socio-economic organization, it is also very important that the system has not only inputs and outputs, implemented by its elements in interaction with the external environment, which have connections with the external environment. It has internal elements that carry out negative feedback in system. This is very important, since in the course of its activity the system must "fit" into the external environment, adapt to its changes. At the same time, the system (organization) diverts resources from the main activity aimed at achieving the general goal.
Any system has its own structure.
Structure(from Latin "structure" - structure, arrangement, order) reflects certain relationships, the relative position of the components of the system, its device (structure).
The system from the point of view of the observer (its researcher) can be small and large, simple and complex.
Small system always considered as a whole, without division into parts, without structuring.
big system involves the mandatory division of the system into its components (elements), each of which can be considered separately, and then a general idea of a large system can be drawn up based on ideas about each element and the relationships between them.
simple system- a system that can be considered (explored) only in one aspect of human knowledge (technics and technology, economics, and other). All technical systems, no matter how cumbersome and saturated with various components, are simple.
A complex system- a system, the consideration of which is carried out in several aspects (branches) of human knowledge.
All organizations are complex systems, as they affect at least two branches of knowledge: social and economic. The third is often the area of technical knowledge. Moreover, organizations are composed of several elements (the definition of an organization says that an organization is an association of at least two people). Therefore, the organization is always viewed as a large complex system.
To date, the main patterns of functioning and development of systems have been identified that characterize the fundamental features of the construction, functioning and development of complex large systems. They can be divided into four groups (Fig. 1.3)
Control ancient art and modern science. Experts in the field of management agree that management is part of large political, economic, technological, social and ethical systems and is based on its own concepts, principles and methods, that is, it has a serious scientific and methodological foundation.
Any science is a collection of knowledge and a constant search for new data about nature and society in order to understand and explain the phenomena and laws of nature, of which man himself is a part. In a new complex phenomenon, science seeks to determine its basis, which is usually ingeniously simple to discover patterns hiding in apparent chaos. The main thing in the theory is not a detailed description of the object under study, but the study of its basic properties, the identification of general laws of relationships in order to provide the fundamental possibility of establishing new knowledge.
Management, in the broad sense of this term, is a continuous process of influencing the object of management (personality, team, technological process, enterprise, state) to achieve optimal results with the least expenditure of time and resources. Every specialist in the field of management must master the theory, practice and art of management, be able to clearly define the goals of their activities, determine the strategy and tactics necessary to achieve them.
The functions of a leader have become much more complicated in our time. Now he not only has to think about the production and economic management of his enterprise, firm, but also constantly solve long-term, strategic issues that used to be decided at the level of the head office or ministry. Without studying the market, without finding a place for their products on it, without innovative investments and a bank loan, the enterprise is doomed.
Problematic tasks appear before the manager: the introduction of new technologies, the organization of the release of new, competitive goods, not formal, but actual attention to the quality of products, the solution of a complex of social issues, the search for new methods of stimulating labor, the development of self-government and at the same time strengthening unity of command and discipline. And one more new and very important thing is risk, responsibility. Managers are forced to independently solve a number of new production problems, such as defining strategic goals and management objectives, developing detailed plans to achieve these goals, decomposing tasks into specific operations, coordinating the activities of the enterprise with other companies and firms, constantly improving the hierarchical structure, optimizing the adoption procedure. management decisions, finding the most effective management styles and improving the motivation of employees.
Principles of the study of the development of the control system
In economic theory, as in other sciences, it is customary to define methodology as a certain set of scientific principles that provides the research process with the necessary set of methods and techniques, through which the essence of the economic phenomenon or process under consideration, its driving forces and development vector are clarified.
To study the process of transformation of the administrative-legal system of regional management into a new market management system at the stage of its transitional and crisis state, a number of scientists define the following methodological principles.
The first principle is that the Russian economy as a whole and the economy of the regions are considered by them as a certain part of the world geo-economic and geopolitical space, setting its general direction and principles of development, but requiring maximum consideration of national interests and historical features of development.
The second principle is that the choice of an effective model for managing a region depends on the theoretical and practical recognition of the advantages of the "European" or "Asian" model of building economic theory as the most adequate to Russian realities, as well as on those organizational and legal forms that are chosen for the commercial activities of enterprises in the region and its non-profit organizations.
The third methodological principle is to recognize management as a specific type of economic activity of the functions of renewal and rejection.
Based on the proposed principles, the authors substantiate the solution of the problem. In the context of the aggravation of economic, political, religious and personal relations associated with the transition to a post-industrial society and a new vector of movement of the modern world economy, "Russia's choice of its own path of socio-economic and political development of society and regions is one of the most important historical tasks, the solution of which will determine for many years the place and role of the Russian state in the global geo-economic space.
The importance of choosing such a path of development lies in the fact that "at present, Russia's role in the global geo-economic order has not yet been determined - it is at the stage of" troubled times "and faces a historical choice. It will have to choose one of the options for a possible geostrategy. The first is acceptance of the status of a semi-peripheral country, relying only on the market for economic development ... which naturally leads to the transformation into a raw materials appendage of developed countries; the second is to become a highly developed and prosperous power. The second option ... represents the development of Russia along the "third way "similar to the ongoing reforms in China, and this should happen either in a radical adjustment in the course of reforms or as a result of a social explosion."
The correctness of the forthcoming choice of the path of development will be determined by the strategy of socio-economic transformations that the Russian government has outlined for the period up to 2010.
Without denying the importance of the whole range of planned activities, we note two, in our opinion, key points.
The first is the need to restructure the economy of the country and regions. And the second point is the formation of an effective management system at all levels of management. Not only will the entry of the Russian economy into the complex and contradictory world of market relations depend on the solution of these tasks, but, no less important, it will become manageable. As an analysis of the course of economic reforms in Russia shows, most of the tasks outlined since 1990 to transform the Russian economy and increase the level of its manageability have not been resolved, as a result of which the private sector has not become the locomotive of economic progress, decentralization of management has not been replaced by the action of specific market mechanisms. . Under these conditions, they are looking for ways to improve the efficiency of economic management based on the experience of the leading industrial countries of the world. The fact that the management of the economy of the country and regions is indeed the central link in a complex chain of economic processes can be judged by a number of scientific publications and journalistic materials.
The methodological basis for building a new management system should be those general theoretical principles on the basis of which the developed model will:
- firstly, to correspond to the nature and level of development of social production both in the country and in the regions;
- secondly, to reflect and most fully implement the goals of the development of a managed economic system;
- thirdly, to integrate the various economic interests of all participants in the economic process into economic behavior;
- fourthly, to express all cost categories of production in monetary forms as the final economic forms of the reproduction process;
- fifthly, to optimize the combination of factors of regional production and ensure the efficiency of their use in all phases of social reproduction;
- sixth, to ensure high motivation of employees and their orientation towards highly efficient work.
As can be seen, the current system of Russian management of the economy and its structural subdivisions is based on far from all of the listed theoretical principles and therefore needs some analysis.
In connection with the search for new theoretical approaches to the study of economic management problems, an increasing number of foreign and Russian scientists are paying attention to the experience of those countries that have provided a more effective mechanism for managing the national economy than Europe and the United States. Naturally, their attention is drawn to Japan and China, where, since the middle of the 20th century, a new methodology of economic science, different from the European one, began to take shape.
In recent years, a number of scientific papers have appeared on various problems of control theory, in which the authors reveal the essence of the concept of "control" and its relationship with the controlled system in different ways.
So, L. N. Suvorov and A. N. Averin believe that "management as an objectively existing process arises only at the stage of social self-movement of matter, that is, with the advent of man and society," and that it is "actions that ensure ordering and controlling the activities of people and their communities within the framework of a particular social system.
There are two important methodological points to note in this definition.
First Management is associated only with human activity and therefore has a social character.
Second- the content side of management is the ordering and control exercised by people in relation to a particular social or regional system.
A slightly different definition of management is given by V. D. Grazhdan, according to whom "management includes not only a change in the order, what is, but also the" design "of new parts and properties in the process of development, as well as the focus on eliminating the old, obsolete."
The content of modern management (management) was successfully noticed by Yu. V. Kuznetsov and V. I. Podlesnykh, according to whom "unlike all previous methods of managing collective actions, constant updating is built into management. Historical periodization of management confirms and shows the dependence of its development from external conditions and, above all, from the historical stage of the development of society.
Thus, management is such a management system that, with its functions, is designed to reproduce a managed organization on an expanded basis, providing it with qualitative changes specified from the outside.
Management as a system
Each object of management (state, industry, enterprise, team, individual) is characterized by significant features, differences, but scientific methods of management have in their arsenal general principles and methods of influencing any managed object. The theory, practice and art of management are used by the manager to achieve the goal of his activity and allow him to develop a strategy, a set of tools and methods for solving the set tasks with personal responsibility for the management decisions made. Determination of goals, management strategies and implementation of the decisions made with the help of the production team constitute the main set of functional duties of the manager.
Each of the managed objects is a system consisting of separate, but interconnected parts, elements. Moreover, the system acquires new properties that its constituent elements do not possess.
Management provides a continuous and purposeful impact on the controlled object, which can be a technological installation, a team or an individual. Management is a process, and the management system is a mechanism that ensures this process. Any dynamic process in which people can also participate consists of separate procedures, operations and interrelated stages. Their sequence and interrelation constitute the technology of the managerial (in our case) process. Strictly speaking, management technology consists of information, computational, organizational and logical operations performed by managers and specialists of various profiles according to a certain algorithm manually or using technical means. Management technology is the methods, order, regulations for the implementation of the management process.
The science of management allows you to systematize, analyze the management process, and develop recommendations for its optimization. Fundamentally, the control process is characterized by two main components: the control system and the control object. These components can be a leader and a subordinate, a dispatcher and factory floors, a human brain and organs controlled by it through the nervous system. The main feature of the management process is the unity and interconnectedness of its components, which is provided by feedback. In this case, the control is carried out in a closed loop.
Information about the state of the controlled object is sent via the feedback channel to the comparison body (OS) of the system, which can make the necessary adjustments to the control process.
There are technical systems (energy systems, oil and gas pipelines, information and computer network, technological process, etc.), socio-economic systems (individual enterprises, industries, transport systems, services and trade, etc.) and separately distinguish especially complex systems - organizational, the main element of which is a person - the element itself is complex, active and far from always predictable.
To optimize and especially automate management, it is necessary to develop formalized models, but it is very difficult, and sometimes simply impossible, to create a model of an organizational system. However, in organizational systems, it is the person who makes the management decisions.
For the purposeful management of an object, the manager must have information about its condition with the help of instruments or through performers. This information is sent to the manager via a feedback channel, compared with the required mode of operation, and, if necessary, control signals are sent to the controlled object. The object of control can be not only a technical device, a production line, but also such highly complex controlled systems as a team, family, individual. In this case, the control of the system is often very difficult, requiring a lot of experience, knowledge and skill, since its reactions to control commands are often inadequate.
In automatic control systems, the technological process is carried out without the direct participation of a person. In these cases, the role of a person is transferred to the regulator, which, based on the information received, makes an appropriate decision.
Management organization
Organization is a providing management function aimed at creating the necessary conditions for achieving goals. The main tasks of the organization: the formation of the structure of the organization and the provision of its activities with finances, equipment, raw materials, materials and labor resources. When changing environmental conditions, it is often necessary to rebuild the organizational structure in order to improve its compliance with the needs of flexible production, simplify it, or, conversely, introduce new structural elements. The main indicator of a high management organization is its quick reaction to changes in the external environment, special sensitivity to the achievements of scientific and technological progress, to market conditions.
The term "organization" (from Latin organize - I give a slim look, I arrange) has a double meaning. The organization as a management function ensures the ordering of the technical, economic, socio-psychological and legal aspects of the activity of the managed system at all its hierarchical levels. At the same time, another meaning of this word is a kind of association, a team whose efforts are aimed at achieving specific goals common to all members of this team. But any organization must have such important resources as capital, information, materials, equipment and technology. Equally important for the successful operation of the organization is the presence of stable ties between members of the team, common to all rules and a culture of behavior. The success of the functioning of an organization depends on complex, variable environmental factors: economic conditions, applied equipment and technology, competing organizations, communication with consumers, the current marketing system, government and legal acts, etc.
The managerial activity of a person largely depends on organizational principles, the wisest order will only be a fiction, if its execution is not organized, its goal is not clear to the performer and it is not supported by motivation.
The task of organizing management at any level can be defined as ensuring the transition from the existing state to the desired one. If in the n-dimensional space we designate any desired economic or other indicators and their values by vectors (a 1, a 2, ... a n), then the task of organizing management is to determine the ways that can be translated at the lowest cost and into the minimum terms of the indicators actually available (b 1 , b 2 ,... b n) to the planned state. The theoretical foundation of scientific issues of organization and management of production are the methods of cybernetics, systems theory, systems engineering, praxeology and bionics. Very fruitful from a theoretical and practical point of view was the proposal of well-known American specialists in the field of management T. Peters and R. Waterman to consider an organization as a unity of seven basic variables: structures (structure), strategies (strategy), systems and management procedures (systems), joint , i.e. shared by all, value attitudes (shared values), the totality of acquired skills, skills (skills), management style (style) and composition of employees, i.e. personnel system (staff).
On fig. Figure 5 shows the well-known 7-C, ("happy atom"), which allows you to visualize the main components and problems of the organization.
Choice of organizational structure of management
Structure (lat. structura - structure) - a form of organization of the system, the unity of stable relationships between the elements that make up the system.
Any complex system is built on a hierarchical, multi-level principle. The control level is determined by the elements of the system that are equally remote from the upper structural link and have similar rights. To implement the management functions of the system, a special apparatus is created, the structure of which is determined by its constituent links and the number of hierarchical levels of management. The management structure should ensure the unity of stable links between its components and the reliable functioning of the system as a whole. This provision applies to the activities of any production team, any society, including family relations.
Rice. 5. Scheme 7-C "Happy atom".
Reasonably created structure of the control system largely determines its effectiveness, as it ensures the stability of the links between the many components of the control object and ensures the integrity of the system. It connects the individual elements of the system into a single whole, significantly affects the forms and organization of planning, operational management, methods of organizing work and their coordination, makes it possible to measure and compare the performance of each link in the system.
In complex systems, the whole is greater than the sum of their constituent elements, the properties and capabilities of the whole exceed the properties and capabilities of their parts (the well-known law of synergy from the Greek synergos - joint, coordinated, which was introduced into scientific use by I. Ansoff). That is, the properties of the system differ from the algebraic sum of the properties that make up the system of elements. Features of the synergistic effect are described by an amazing formula: 2+2=5 . When this abstraction, strange at first glance, is transferred to the real world of production activity, the total income from the activities of a large enterprise turns out to be higher than the sum of the return indicators for each of its branches (especially if resources common to all departments of the enterprise are used and complementarity is ensured). Here it is worth noting that if the main parameters of the elements and even the order of their interaction are known, then it is impossible to draw conclusions about the properties of the system as a whole.
The practical value of studying the synergistic effect lies primarily in the use of the unique properties of large systems - self-organization and the ability to determine a very limited number of parameters that can be controlled by the system (order parameters).
There are many types of management structures: patriarchal, linear, functional, staff, matrix, there are even divisional and product structures.
In modern Russia, the structure of the economy and its management system have a pronounced three-tier character: public administration - corporations and branch joint-stock companies - medium and small enterprises. Corporations are forced to create powerful management structures for long-term analysis and planning, development of research programs and scientific and technological developments, patent and licensing activities, collection and processing of a wide variety of information, and organization of marketing and sales research. Especially deep studies of the optimality of management decisions are carried out by transnational companies that create subsidiaries in other countries.
The problem of choosing the type of enterprise management structure has become very relevant for enterprises and firms in modern Russia. The vast majority of failures in production management is primarily due to the imperfection of the organizational structure of management. At the dawn of modern Russian entrepreneurship, this question was of little interest to anyone, since the new firms created were, as a rule, with a small number of employees and were easy to manage. Naturally, at that time the most common were "flat" structures, when the manager worked directly with subordinates, without intermediaries. But, as Mikhail Kuznetsov, financial director of the Party company, quickly became convinced and then repeatedly spoke about this, with an increase in the number of personnel, sole management becomes impossible and it becomes necessary to put vertical structures into action. The simplest two-level "flat" vertical structure, as the most flexible, adequately responding to changes in the situation, remains very common among Russian production management structures to this day. In such systems, information is less susceptible to distortion, since information channels are shorter and its transformation during the transition from one level of control to another is minimal.
Further development of the enterprise requires the adoption of new structural decisions, a transition is being made from a functional structure, for example, to a divisional one, which is an amalgamation of several functional structures (from English division - division). Enterprises with a divisional management structure make strategic decisions at the corporate level (financial management, marketing, capital investments, etc.), but their functional, or subsidiaries, divisions have sufficient independence, carry out their planning, marketing activities, personnel policy. But at the same time, the number of managerial personnel inevitably grows, most often up to 25-30% of the number of employees, and, accordingly, the costs of maintaining it grow. The goals and objectives of the "top" of the multilevel hierarchy and the subdivisions do not always coincide.
The divisional structure of management is successfully used in those organizations that operate in various business areas (diversification of activities) and cover vast geographical regions. With a high level of diversification, large corporations use one of the varieties of the divisional structure - the product structure, where management is carried out according to the main range of products. With this structure, management functions are transferred to a manager who is entirely responsible for the production and marketing of a certain type of product, a small product-specific firm is formed within a large corporation.
In international companies, a matrix management system has become widespread, combining the advantages of large companies with a developed functional structure and small firms with their operational, mobile management structures. Under the matrix system, an enterprise has dual subordination - according to a functional and territorial sign: with significant operational independence.
More professional, but difficult to implement, is the method of organizational economic and mathematical modeling. It is based on the development of algorithms for the main functions of the enterprise under the conditions of the criteria for optimal control and the existing system of restrictions. This method makes extensive use of mathematical formalization methods, which makes it easy to switch to computer programming and analysis of organizational structure options using computer technology.
A three-level management structure has been preferred in Russia. This is how the vast majority of small and medium enterprises operate.
An analysis of the activities of leading companies and firms in modern Russia shows that their organizational structures are in constant dialectical development.
In recent years, another form of the organizational structure of production management has become widespread in Russia - industrial holdings. It is more convenient for enterprises, usually in the same industry, to control joint activities and solve issues of common strategic planning, while maintaining their economic and legal independence. Holdings do not deal with the problems of production activities, but on their own behalf they can conclude commercial agreements and contracts, which is especially beneficial when entering international markets. The most common method of setting up a holding company is to own controlling stakes or other securities in industrial firms. The holder of a controlling stake has the ability to control the course of production and marketing of products of the enterprises included in the holding.
A reasonable choice of the type of organizational structures depends on a balanced analysis of many factors: the possibility of using computer technology to analyze structures, the development strategy of an enterprise for the period under study, the amount of work performed, and, finally, the production experience of managerial personnel. The simplest and most commonly used method for choosing an organizational structure is to study the structures of successfully developing related enterprises. Another method - the development of a new structure is carried out on the basis of the recommendations of professional consultants and experts. The methods of structuring goals and organizational modeling are less commonly used.
Any, even the most perfect management structure is doomed to change and further improvement. The sooner the governing bodies determine the need for these changes, the more effective the management process will be, the less the threat of stagnation and regression of the system will be. The reason for the inevitability of new organizational relations and the corresponding management structures lies in the constant development and redistribution of functions between the elements of the management system, obsolescence of the structure and in such a powerful catalyst for social, economic and managerial changes as scientific and technological progress (replacement of equipment, development of new products and technologies ).
The optimal organizational structure, corresponding to dynamic changes in the external environment, is able to solve the following tasks: coordination of the work of all functional services of the enterprise, a clear definition of the rights and obligations, powers and responsibilities of all participants in the management process. Timely adjustment of the structure helps to improve the efficiency of the enterprise, and a reasonable choice of organizational structure largely determines the management style and quality of labor processes.
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