History performs several socially significant functions.
Cognitive function consists in a specific study of the historical path of Russia and its peoples, in a theoretical generalization of historical facts and events that occurred in Russia. In scientific language, the word “history” is often used as a process of movement in time and as a process of knowledge in time. Therefore, when studying the course national history It is important to understand the process of origin, formation and functioning of the Russian state at various stages of its development.
Practical recommendation function is that history in general, and the history of Russia in particular, by identifying the patterns of development of society, helps to develop a scientifically based course of foreign and domestic policy, the life of the country, international relations, and to guide the activities of historical figures and political parties.
Educational function – plays a vital role in the formation of a scientific worldview, in the knowledge of the laws of development of human society. History provides documented accurate data about outstanding events of the past. Their understanding develops a view of the world, society, and the laws of development.
History is based on facts: objective events of the past, and we receive facts from various sources. There are:
Material sources (material), or monuments of human activity (tools, household items, weapons, etc.;
Written sources: chronicles, legislative acts, memoirs);
Folklore sources;
Linguistic sources;
Visual sources (graphic, artistic);
Phonetic sources (film, photo, audio, video materials).
No source, by itself, can give an assessment of the past. It only reproduces or helps to reconstruct a historical fact, the truth. Only a historian, based on the study of sources of different origins, establishes the veracity of the information, i.e. recreates a real picture of the past, interprets, explains it. And since each researcher has his own scientific concept, his own vision of history, the facts receive different assessments and interpretations.
This is how theoretical concepts or approaches to the study of history are developed.
Historical method is a way of studying historical patterns through their specific manifestations: through historical facts, ways of extracting new knowledge from facts.
Research methods of historical science are divided into the following groups.
1.3.1. General scientific methods of historical research:
- logical– establishing cause-and-effect relationships between phenomena, which allows you to arrange events in a logical order and deduce one fact from another;
- classification– grouping facts according to certain characteristics and criteria;
- historicism– consideration of phenomena not in isolation, but taking into account previous and subsequent events;
- analysis and synthesis– decomposition of the process being studied into its component parts and the connection of new components into a new whole.
1.3.2. Socio-historical research methods:
- chronological – a statement of events in the sequence in which they occurred; When studying the history of Russia, the following chronological methods are used:
Actually chronological, the essence of which is that the phenomena are presented in strict chronological order;
- chronologically problematic, provides for the study of history by periods, and within them - by problems;
- problem-chronological studying any one aspect of the life and activities of the state in its consistent, chronological development;
Much less common, but used synchronous method, which makes it possible to establish connections and relationships between phenomena and processes occurring at the same time in different places in Russia or its regions.
- comparative historical – selection historical events in one or more countries and comparing them according to different parameters;
- historical modeling – creating a theoretical model to explain the most important processes in a certain society.
Historians use the results of almost all humanities (disciplines): geography, economics, religious studies. Particularly highlighted are auxiliary historical disciplines that study material sources: paleography (studies the material and writing tools, changes in graphics, the system of accepted abbreviations in writing), heraldry (coats of arms and their symbolism), sphragistics (seals, inscriptions on them, material, era production, nature of use), numismatics (study of coins), chronology and metrology (studies calendars, systems of calculations and measures), source studies (studies historical documents to establish the time and place of their creation, authorship, purpose of writing, reliability), historigraphy (from Greek "History" - exploration, study of the past; and "Grapho" - writing. This term is often used to describe historical literature, meaning not only the content, but also the authorship).
1.4. The general objective of the discipline “History of the unified state system for the prevention and liquidation of emergency situations (RSChS) and civil defense (CD)”: studying the origins of the origin, development and improvement of the national civil defense system.
The main objective of training: formation in trainees of high moral, combat, professional and patriotic qualities necessary for future specialists in the field of technosphere safety (life safety); familiarizing students with the historical prerequisites for the occurrence of emergency situations in wars for freedom and national interests of Russia; justification of the historical importance of the creation of the State Rescue Service in our country; creation of a scientific and information basis for the organization and conduct of special historical work by graduates in accordance with the order of the Minister of Emergency Situations No. 734 of December 21, 1998 (see Appendix).
There is no point in studying the exploits of the past without a firm belief in the future. This, by no means a new saying, contains the truth, which largely determines the need to study history in educational institutions that train specialists in the field of civil protection.
The history of the Russian state is at the same time the history of its defense, including armed defense. It is well known that the importance of history in the educational process is determined, first of all, by its enormous cognitive capabilities. For a civil defense specialist, knowledge of special history is an essential aspect of his general and professional preparedness, an integral part of general cultural development. The need to study special history arises from the role that historical experience plays in the development of all areas of modern military affairs.
Special historical knowledge occupies a special place in the formation of personal, primarily moral and combat qualities of future civil defense specialists. They actively help students to establish themselves in the conviction that their chosen path of selfless service to their people is the right path and necessary for the Fatherland.
The study of the experience of defensive (defensive, including military) construction of Russia, the organization and implementation of its defense can and should become an inexhaustible source of historical optimism for future specialists. History shows that in the best times for the spiritual rise of the Fatherland and in the darkest years for it, the noblest forces of the nation gathered in the army and other law enforcement agencies. Understanding this makes it possible to form in future specialists that courageous idealism in serving the Fatherland, which has traditionally been inherent in the best representatives of the corps of defenders of our Motherland at all stages of its history. It is this quality, based on knowledge of special and military history, that will make it possible to successfully resist any attempts at disorientation, disinformation, blackmail and defamation in order to deform consciousness and betrayal of the duty of a specialist defender of the Motherland, as has often happened relatively recently around our army and navy.
In the daily creative activity of a civil protection specialist, his ability to correctly navigate the main directions of development of the civil protection system and skillfully use all the capabilities of the latest means and methods of protection for the successful completion of assigned tasks becomes increasingly important.
Practice shows that complex and responsible tasks of training and educating subordinates, maintaining high combat readiness and combat capability of command and control bodies, forces and means of civil defense require specialists to have a correct understanding of the laws of social development, knowledge of the essence and content of modern problems of civil defense, and the ability to deeply understand in the dialectic of its forms, means and methods.
The complexity and specificity of the functional duties performed by civil protection specialists, as well as the special responsibility assigned to them when higher degrees readiness and operating modes place increased demands on their morale, combat and professional qualities. The formation of these qualities can be successful only if students have a strong ideological foundation, in the creation of which special historical training provides especially favorable opportunities.
In particular, An active way to influence the formation of the scientific worldview of students is to reveal to them the content of the main methodological problems of the history of civil protection. These problems include, first of all, definition of the object and subject, structure, functions and boundaries of the history of civil knowledge, analysis of the general properties of its subject, its relationship with other social and special sciences, characterization of the principles of mutual connections of individual parts and aspects of historical science, consideration of their subordination and coordination, disclosure of content, patterns and general provisions of the history of civil law, as well as their role in relation to its special and particular provisions.
Discovering the problems of the history of civil defense in combination with the structure of military history science contributes to the formation of the scientific worldview of students. In particular, the fixed distinction between two areas of historical knowledge and the clarification of their interrelation and correlation contribute to a deep disclosure of the nature and content of not only civil protection, but also armed struggle, war in general, help to correctly understand their laws and certain specific aspects, to understand the principles, categories and conceptual apparatus.
Thus, an opportunity is created for the disclosure and in-depth understanding of the correspondence of the laws of materialist dialectics to the real cause-and-effect relationships of nature and society. By this, already at the first acquaintance with the subject of historical training, there is a consolidation and development of those fundamental principles of the worldview of the defender of the Motherland, the content of which was set out in the process of studying social disciplines at previous levels of education (at school and university).
An opportunity is created to study all the specific forms in which the basic laws of materialist dialectics can manifest themselves, acting as a universal universal connection both in war and in any emergency situation, as well as in conditions of ensuring technospheric security. It seems possible to fill the categories of materialist dialectics, which are concepts of the utmost degree of generality, with specific content - knowledge about the development of phenomena and processes of civil protection and technosphere security.
Consequently, with a sufficiently high cognitive activity of students and the required depth of study of the discipline, a fairly deep formation of a unified categorical system of scientific thinking of a civil defense specialist is possible. This will allow you to develop creative abilities, learn the correct objective approach to analyzing the internal structure of the defense system, both in wartime conditions and in emergency situations, to identify the specifics of using various means and methods of protection and ensuring security in specific historical conditions, to search for ways to prevent and liquidation of emergency consequences.
Experience shows that the use of history to form the scientific worldview of future specialists, starting with the first lecture, can be successfully continued during the study of the discipline. At the first, initial stage, this manifests itself in the ordering and systematization of existing individual concepts and ideas that are ideological in nature. Gradually, during training sessions and independent work, a quantitative accumulation of information can and should occur, forming the basis of a specialist’s professional thinking. Ultimately, it is precisely those intellectual skills and abilities that are formed that indicate the maturity and strength of a specialist’s ideological position.
Exclusively important role Historical training plays a role in the formation of a specialist’s political (state) thinking. The past, captured on the pages of history, is essentially an important element of our worldview, which allows us to determine the correct position on the most pressing problems of our time. The progressive minds of mankind have always noted that knowledge of history does not burden the memory, but makes a person wiser, capable, based on the experience of the past, to solve the problems of today, to lift the veil over the future. Special history, including military history, is especially fruitful in this regard. Its knowledge gives everyone the opportunity to think in particular about the following facts: there was the First World War, there was a second one. Will it be possible to prevent the third – the most unthinkable? After all, if you do not put reliable barriers to its preparation and unleashing, then the likely alternative may be the absence of a future for billions of people on earth. One of the important factors in preventing the possibility of unleashing a new world war is, as is known, strengthening the defense power of the state and increasing the readiness of the Armed Forces to prevent and, if necessary, suppress aggression.
The experience of history teaches that if difficulties arise in the world, crisis or pre-crisis phenomena, a deterioration in the economic situation, or a weakening of the combat capability of the armed forces, supporters of aggression become tougher and more arrogant. And today, In the conditions of intense foreign policy struggle to maintain military-strategic parity at a gradually decreasing level, the policy of preventing war is unthinkable without maintaining the high combat readiness of the Russian Armed Forces, their ability to suppress any attacks from the outside on the security of the state. At the same time, the country’s civil protection (civil defense) system, as an integral part of the country’s national security and defense system, must be ready to carry out tasks in any scenario for the deployment of military operations and large-scale terrorist attacks, including in conditions of the enemy’s massive use of modern and promising weapons , as well as take part in the protection of the population and territories in emergencies of a natural and man-made nature, as well as during terrorist attacks.
Thus, understanding the laws historical development, the ability, based on an analysis of the course and outcome of past wars and emergencies, to draw correct conclusions for the future will lead the student to a conscious perception of the importance for preserving peace of the activities that await him after graduation. It is knowledge of history that allows a student to fully appreciate the meaning and interconnection of such concepts as peace, vigilance and combat readiness. Based on historical experience, they more confidently navigate the modern situation, understanding that if a war is blazing somewhere, hotbeds of military conflicts are smoldering, the legitimate rights of peoples are being trampled upon, then this threatens not only regional, but also global peace with emergencies on a global scale. It is history that repeatedly testifies: in the event of an aggravation of the international situation, the lines between political struggle and military conflict can become very thin, fragile, and unstable, and in this case only extreme vigilance and the highest combat readiness can save the world from catastrophe.
Increasing the methodological equipment of future specialists, special historical knowledge at the same time actively helps to develop in them high moral, combat and political qualities necessary for further professional activity. By revealing the heroic past of our people, especially its military and labor traditions, historical science helps to increase the morale of soldiers, civil defense specialists, and instill patriotism in them; it actively participates in the formation of the moral and political factor - the most important component of ensuring the country's security.
In modern conditions, it is especially important to emphasize the role of historical knowledge in the patriotic education of citizens. In order to unobtrusively and effectively influence the formation of civil state consciousness, especially among young people, in order to correctly and effectively guide their upbringing, one should remember that the most confident civil development of a person occurs when it begins with history, with the memory of the heroic past of the Motherland. And it is necessary to constantly study, be able to truthfully and honestly present the glorious history of the Fatherland, the origins of the courage and heroism of the defenders of the Motherland, without avoiding the difficulties and dramatic pages of their activities in the field of civil protection. At the same time, do not forget, from the standpoint of scientific objectivity, to see and understand how high a price had to be paid for voluntaristic errors, dogmatism in thinking, for inertia in practical actions. It is absolutely clear that in this difficult task one cannot count on success if the civil defense specialist himself lacks a clear moral position, which alone can serve as a reliable compass that ensures the choice of methods and arguments for analysis, explanation and correct political assessment of the events and facts of national history . It is natural to assume that the formation of such a position should occur during study at a university. And the special historical training of students is to a significant extent designed to ensure this process.
Thus, studying the experience of the history of our country allows professional specialists to confidently find their place both in the process of implementing new concepts of civil protection, and in implementing the provisions of the modern doctrine of defense and defense of the state.
From the above it follows that the role and functions of special historical training for BGARF students are very broad and diverse. Specifically, they basically boil down to the following:
Study and comprehend that part of the general historical process that is associated with wars and emergency situations of war and peace;
To acquire social experience that has theoretical and practical significance for solving the protective and defense tasks of our state, for the development of modern military art, the theory and practice of civil protection;
To educate new generations of certified professionals, and through them all employees of our service, in the heroic, patriotic traditions of defending the Motherland;
Actively assist the leadership of the Russian Ministry of Emergency Situations and all rescue services in the fight against all kinds of anti-scientific speculation, versions and false theories in the field of history, against its use as a means of ideological struggle;
To provide professional specialists with the opportunity to correctly understand modern policy in the field of defense construction and draw the right conclusions from it for their practical work in the civil defense system.
1.5. Target setting and organizational and methodological instructions for the study of the academic discipline “History of the unified state system for the prevention and liquidation of emergency situations (RSChS) and civil defense (CD).”
As a result of studying the discipline, students must
Have an idea:
On the experience of preventing and eliminating emergency situations in peacetime;
On the practice of using civil defense units of foreign countries and organizing international cooperation on issues of preventing and eliminating emergencies of various types;
Know:
The history of MPVO, civil defense, RSChS at all stages of their origin and development during the Great Patriotic War Patriotic War, V local wars, armed conflicts, as well as in the elimination of major industrial accidents, catastrophes and natural disasters;
The reasons for the emergence and development of emergencies in the military solution of geopolitical problems using examples from domestic military history in the interests of possible peacekeeping activities of the Russian Ministry of Emergency Situations.
Be able to:
Apply the principles of historicism in a creative approach to solving problems in their practical professional activities after graduating from the academy;
Use the experience of national military history to establish in the minds of subordinate personnel the ideas of patriotism, selfless fulfillment of the professional duty of a rescuer, and a sense of pride in belonging to an important component of the national security of the Fatherland - the Russian Civil Defense Troops.
The discipline “History of the unified state system for the prevention and response of emergency situations (RSChS) and civil defense (CD)” is studied in a complex of operational-tactical disciplines that profile the training of undergraduate students of the academy.
They are based on philosophical, general scientific, and are the basis of specific problem-solving methods.
Historical-genetic and retrospective methods. The historical-genetic method is the most common. Aimed at the consistent disclosure of properties, functions and changes in historical reality. According to I. Kovalchenko’s definition, by its logical nature it is analytical, inductive, and by the form of expression of information it is descriptive. It is aimed at identifying cause-and-effect relationships and analyzing the occurrence (genesis) of certain phenomena and processes. Historical events are shown in their individuality and specificity.
When applying this method, some errors are possible, if you take it as an absolute. Focusing on studying the development of phenomena and processes, one cannot underestimate the stability of these phenomena and processes. Further, while showing the individuality and uniqueness of events, one must not lose sight of what is common. Pure empiricism should be avoided.
If the genetic method is directed from the past to the present, then the retrospective method is from the present to the past, from the effect to the cause. Based on the elements of the preserved past, it is possible to reconstruct this past. By going into the past, we can clarify the stages of formation and formation of the phenomenon that we have in the present. What may seem random with a genetic approach, with a retrospective method will seem to be a prerequisite for later events. In the present, we have a more developed object compared to its previous forms and can better understand the process of formation of this or that process. We see the prospect of the development of phenomena and processes in the past, knowing the result. By studying the years preceding the French Revolution of the 18th century, we will obtain certain data about the maturation of the revolution. But if we return to this period, already knowing what happened during the revolution, we will learn the deeper reasons and preconditions of the revolution, which became especially clear during the revolution itself. We will see not individual facts and events, but a coherent, logical chain of phenomena that naturally led to the revolution.
Synchronous, chronological and diachronic methods. The synchronous method is focused on studying different events that occurred at the same time. All phenomena in society are interconnected, and this method, especially often used in systematic approach, helps to reveal this connection. And this will make it possible to clarify the explanation of historical events taking place in a particular region, to trace the influence of economic, political, and international relations of different countries.
In domestic literature, B.F. Porshnev published a book in which he showed the system of states during the English revolution of the mid-17th century. However, to this day this approach is poorly developed in domestic historiography: chronological histories of individual countries predominate. Only recently has an attempt been made to write the history of Europe not as a sum of individual states, but as a certain system of states, to show the mutual influence and interconnection of events.
Chronological method. Every historian uses it - the study of the sequence of historical events in time (chronology). Essential facts must not be overlooked. History is often distorted when historians suppress facts that do not fit into the scheme.
A variant of this method is problem-chronological, when a broad topic is divided into a number of problems, each of which is considered in the chronological sequence of events.
Diachronic method (or periodization method). The qualitative features of processes over time, the moments of formation of new stages and periods are highlighted, the state at the beginning and end of the period is compared, and the general direction of development is determined. In order to identify the qualitative features of periods, it is necessary to clearly define the criteria for periodization, take into account objective conditions and the process itself. You cannot replace one criterion with another. Sometimes it is impossible to accurately name the year or month of the beginning of a new stage - all facets in society are mobile and conditional. It is impossible to fit everything into a strict framework; there is asynchrony of events and processes, and the historian must take this into account. When there are several criteria and different schemes, the historical process is understood more deeply.
Historical-comparative method. Enlightenment scholars began to use the comparative method. F. Voltaire wrote one of the first world histories, but he used comparison more as a technique than a method. At the end of the 19th century, this method became popular, especially in socio-economic history (M. Kovalevsky, G. Maurer wrote works on the community). After the Second World War, the comparative method was especially widely used. Almost no historical study is complete without comparison.
By collecting factual material, comprehending and systematizing the facts, the historian sees that many phenomena can have similar content, but different forms of manifestation in time and space, and, conversely, have different content, but be similar in form. The cognitive significance of the method lies in the possibilities it opens for understanding the essence of phenomena. The essence can be understood by the similarities and differences in the characteristics inherent in phenomena. The logical basis of the method is analogy, when, based on the similarity of some characteristics of an object, a conclusion is drawn about the similarity of others.
The method makes it possible to reveal the essence of phenomena when it is not obvious, to identify common, repeating, and natural patterns, to make generalizations, and to draw historical parallels. A number of requirements must be met. Comparison should be made on specific facts that reflect the essential features of phenomena, and not formal similarities. You need to know the era, the typology of phenomena. You can compare phenomena of the same type and different types, at the same or different stages of development. In one case, the essence will be revealed based on identifying similarities, in the other - differences. The principle of historicism should not be forgotten.
But the use of the comparative method also has some limitations. It helps to understand the diversity of reality, but not the specificity of it in a specific form. It is difficult to apply the method when studying the dynamics of the historical process. Formal application leads to errors, and the essence of many phenomena can be distorted. You need to use this method in combination with others. Unfortunately, only analogy and comparison are often used, and the method, which is much more meaningful and broader than the techniques mentioned, is rarely used in its entirety.
Historical-typological method. Typology - division of objects or phenomena into various types based on essential features, identification of homogeneous sets of objects. I. Kovalchenko considers the typological method to be a method of essential analysis. The formal descriptive classification proposed by the positivists does not give such a result. The subjective approach led to the idea of constructing types only in the thinking of a historian. M. Weber developed the theory of “ideal types,” which for a long time was not used by domestic sociologists, who interpreted it in a simplified manner. In fact, we were talking about modeling, which is now accepted by all researchers.
Types according to I. Kovalchenko are distinguished on the basis of a deductive approach and theoretical analysis. Types and characteristics characterizing qualitative certainty are identified. Then we can classify the object as one type or another. I. Kovalchenko illustrates all this using the example of types of Russian peasant farming. I. Kovalchenko needed such a detailed development of the typology method to justify the use of mathematical methods and computers. A significant part of his book on methods of historical research is devoted to this. We refer the reader to this book.
Historical-systemic method. This method was also developed by I. Kovalchenko in connection with the use of mathematical methods and modeling in historical science. The method is based on the fact that there are socio-historical systems different levels. The main components of reality: individual and unique phenomena, events, historical situations and processes are considered as social systems. They are all functionally connected. It is necessary to isolate the system under study from the hierarchy of systems. After identifying the system, a structural analysis follows, determining the relationship between the system components and their properties. In this case, logical and mathematical methods are used. The second stage is a functional analysis of the interaction of the system being studied with systems of a higher level (the peasant economy is considered as part of the system of socio-economic relations and as a subsystem of capitalist production). The main difficulty is created by the multi-level nature of social systems, the transition from lower-level systems to higher systems (yard, village, province). When analyzing, for example, a peasant farm, data aggregation provides new opportunities for understanding the essence of phenomena. In this case, all general scientific and special historical methods are used. The method gives the greatest effect with synchronous analysis, but the development process remains undisclosed. System-structural and functional analysis can lead to excessive abstraction and formalization, and sometimes subjective design of systems.
We have named the main methods of historical research. None of them are universal or absolute. They need to be used comprehensively. In addition, both historical methods must be combined with general scientific and philosophical ones. It is necessary to use methods taking into account their capabilities and limits - this will help to avoid mistakes and false conclusions.
History is a short term to describe events that happened in the past at different times and places. It is also a science that studies the sources of the past in order to learn about events, their sequence, causes and create an objective picture of the process that took place. Methods and sources for studying history include chronicles, archaeological finds, the study of official documents, the use of logic, and modeling.
What and how does history study?
In modern literature one can count up to 30 different definitions of the subject of history. Such a large number is provoked by the fact that this science is studied and developed by people with different views on the world, different experiences and life positions. The same diversity of views reigns among scientists regarding the explanation
But if the subject can be different objects and processes, then the methods remain the same. Both the subject and deal with objective phenomena, for working with which proven standard approaches can be used. The whole variety of methods can be divided into three categories: general scientific, historical, developed specifically for working with the sources and concepts of this science, and special (created by scientists of other directions and borrowed by historians).
Various approaches and methods of study
There are two categories: logical and historical. These two approaches to the study of phenomena complement and enrich each other; logic allows one to generalize what has been studied and draw conclusions where the historical approach is powerless.
To study the events and processes that took place, scientists use the following methods:
- chronological - all events are arranged strictly in chronological order;
- synchronic - various events and their relationships are considered in different parts of the country and the globe at the same time.
Within the chronological method there are also different approaches. The chronological-problematic approach examines what happened by era, and within eras - by problem. Problem-chronological is the opposite: one problem or aspect of life is taken, the development and changes of which are studied in the context of passing time.
In addition to those mentioned, there are also comparative historical, system-structural, statistical and retrospective methods, as well as the method of periodization and sociological research.
Data sources - the basis of historical science
Methods and sources for studying history are interconnected. Facts are everything. The study of sources of facts is carried out by a separate auxiliary discipline - source studies. We can distinguish primary and secondary sources for the study of history, classify them according to the method of transmitting information and the nature of the medium:
- written clay tablets, papyri and books);
- material (tools, dishes, furniture, clothing, weapons, architectural structures);
- ethnographic sources;
- folklore (fairy tales, songs, legends, traditions, ballads);
- linguistic;
- film and photo documents.
Each source requires careful analysis and a thoughtful approach, assessing its reliability.
Controversial issues
However, history is not only the science of facts, it is also the interpretation of facts. Therefore, the methods and sources of studying history seriously influence the results of research, the conclusions about the events that occurred and their causes.
There are many historical documents reporting facts that are interpreted differently by different scholars. There are also different opinions about the origin and purpose: one of them is that the wall was built by China's northern neighbors to protect the North. At the same time, the widespread theory of its appearance is that this wall was built by the Chinese themselves.
The historical events presented in textbooks are only one, “official” version of history. Many historical facts allow for at least two, or even more, interpretations of cause-and-effect relationships. Different interpretations appear not only because of the inconsistency of sources; the methods and sources of studying history, the subtleties of translation of ancient texts, and the peculiarities of the worldview of scientific researchers also play a role here.
Principles of Factual Study
Taking all this into account, the principles of studying historical facts are important for a historian. The principle is the tool that allows you to “stand with both feet on the ground” when studying the past. The principles and methods of studying history are similar in that there are several first and second ones:
- The principle of historicism. Requires that all events and known facts be viewed only through the prism of the time to which they relate. It is impossible to study phenomena separately, on their own, since they arose from the interaction of many factors, and make sense only in context.
- The principle of objectivity. It requires studying and taking into account all known facts, without excluding or discarding anything, without trying to fit what is known into the “necessary” scheme or theory.
- The principle of a social approach, or the principle of partisanship.
- The principle of alternativeness.
Compliance with all principles does not guarantee reliable conclusions; moreover, another researcher, with the same set of data and also following the principles of the study, may get a completely different result.
ESSENCE, FORMS, FUNCTIONS OF HISTORICAL KNOWLEDGE
Methodology and theory of historical science.
Concept and classification of historical source.
Methods and sources of the study of history.
Essence, forms, functions of historical knowledge.
1.4. Domestic historiography in the past and present: the history of Russia is an integral part of world history.
History is an integral component of general culture. A person studying history, in the process of cognitive activity and accumulation of historical knowledge, develops historical consciousness, which is an element of social consciousness.
In science, historical consciousness is usually understood as a set of ideas that are inherent both in society as a whole and in its constituent social groups.
In the process of studying history, people develop an idea about the main stages of the development of civilization, about how our state has changed over the centuries. They get acquainted with cultural monuments and learn about the identity of their people.
In the era of ancient civilizations, history was perceived as a clear example of life for educating a person and forming his ethnic consciousness.
History as a science always embodies the social memory of all generations.
Studying history helps moral development and personality formation, stimulates creative thinking and the ability to act for the benefit of society. (Reflecting on the importance of historical knowledge, one of the outstanding Russian historians V. O. Klyuchevsky wrote: “When determining the tasks and directions of our activities, each of us must be at least a little historian in order to become a consciously and conscientiously acting citizen.”)
Like any other science, the historical science of the development of human society has its own subject and principles of research. One of these principles is the study of various spheres of human activity, the study of the process of human development, the accumulation of knowledge about human society.
History is not only the science of the past, but also the science of the forward movement of human society as a single, diverse and contradictory process.
The successful study of history and its scientifically reliable reconstruction depend on the research methodology.
The method is a way of studying historical processes through their manifestations - historical facts, a way of obtaining new knowledge from facts.
Specific methods include:
1. general scientific;
2. actually historical;
3. special - borrowed from other sciences.
The common methods for all humanities are:
1. logical;
2.historical.
The purpose of the logical method is to consider the phenomena being studied at the highest stage of their development. It is at this moment that they acquire their most mature form, and only this contributes to a better understanding of the previous stages of historical development.
The historical method is capable of reproducing phenomena and processes in their chronological development with all the unique features, details, features through which general patterns appear.
The following methods are usually used to study and research the history of Russia:
chronological method, which consists of presenting phenomena in a strictly chronological (temporal) order;
chronological-problematic method, which consists in studying and researching the history of Russia by periods (eras), within periods - by problems;
a problem-chronological method that studies one aspect of the life and activities of the state in its gradual development;
a synchronic method, which is used less often than others and with the help of which it is possible to establish a connection between individual phenomena and processes occurring at the same time, but in different parts of the country or abroad.
Historical sources are evidence of the past, remnants of a past life.
The classification of historical sources is one of the foundations of an auxiliary historical discipline - source study. Currently, there are seven main groups of historical sources:
1. written;
2. real;
3. oral;
4. ethnographic;
5. linguistic;
6. photo and film documents;
7. phonological documents.
The most important sources for studying the history of Russia are chronicles. The oldest surviving “Tale of Bygone Years” was written in the 12th century. Chronicles, like historical works, consisted of records by year and were sources of complex composition. Code of Law of 1497, Cathedral Code of 1649, charters granted to the nobility, bills of sale are also historical sources.
1) chronological– consists in the fact that historical phenomena are studied strictly in temporal (chronological) order. Used in compiling chronicles of events, biographies;
2) chronologically problematic- provides for the study of Russian history by periods, and within them - by problems. Applicable in all general studies, including in various courses of lectures on history;
3) problem-chronological– is used when studying any one aspect of the activity of a state, society, or politician in its consistent development. This approach allows us to more fully trace the logic of the development of the problem, as well as most effectively extract practical experience;
4) periodization– is based on the fact that society as a whole and any component of it go through various stages of development, separated from each other by qualitative boundaries. The main thing in periodization is the establishment of clear criteria, their strict and consistent application in study and research;
5) comparative-historical– is based on the recognition of the known repeatability of historical events in world history. Its essence lies in comparing them to establish both general patterns and differences;
6) retrospective– is based on the fact that past, present and future societies are closely interconnected. This makes it possible to recreate a picture of the past even in the absence of all sources relating to the time being studied;
7) statistical– consists of studying important aspects of the life and activities of the state, a quantitative analysis of many homogeneous facts, each of which individually is not of great importance, while together they determine the transition of quantitative changes into qualitative ones;
8) sociological research used in the study of modernity. It makes it possible to study phenomena mainly in political history. Among the techniques of this method are questionnaires, surveys, interviews, etc.
Sources for studying Russian history very significant and complex. There appear to be no exact boundaries for the range of sources due to the integrity and indivisibility of the historical process and the interconnectedness of people’s activities at various stages of historical and political development. Approximate classification of sources: 1) archaeological sources; 2) chronicles and chronicle codes; 3) ethnographic sources; 4) archival documents 5) documents of state bodies and public organizations of the Russian state; 6) documents of political parties and movements of Russia 7) works of state and public figures of Russia; 8) periodicals; 9) memoirs; 10) museum documents; 11) photo, sound and film documents; 12) electronic media.