Effect Biefeld-Brown+ gravity reflector Podkletnova= gravitor Akinteva.

The main version of the theory of gravity suppression.

Facts about gravity shielding.

The possibility of suppressing gravity was discussed at the beginning of the 20th century. Many experiments have been carried out since then, proving the possibility of partial suppression of gravity. The talented American physicist Thomas Brown used the Biefeld-Brown effect, which he discovered, to create a gravity suppressor (gravitor). The effect consisted in the forward movement of a flat capacitor towards the positive pole, that is, a “secondary force of gravity” was created, as it were, directed towards the positively charged plate. Moreover, the more the electric field was bent, the stronger the effect was observed. As a result, his gravitators rose into the air and made circular movements. In the 50s of the last century, American scientists tried to bend space-time using electromagnetic fields, according to some data, with the help of developed

by that time, Einstein had developed a unified field theory, and hide the destroyer DE-173 Eldridge from view. It seems that they succeeded, but several people from the team disappeared forever, someone was fused into the hull of the ship, and the rest “lost their minds” and were written off.

Evgeniy Podkletnov achieved a change in the weight of the superconducting disk as it rotated over a powerful electromagnet, and a decrease in pressure was recorded not only under the installation, but also high above it. But the English electrician Searle, who used a small motor to spin a ferromagnetic disk, began to accelerate on its own and soared upward. There are quite a few such experiences. In both cases, signs of shielding of gravity, obtained by rotating installations and curvature of space-time, are obvious. Only the gravity shielding was small and a huge amount of electricity was required. Thomas Townsend Brown came closest.

“In 1953, Brown was able to demonstrate in the laboratory the flight of such a 60-centimeter “air disk” along a circular route with a diameter of 6 meters. The aircraft was connected to the central mast by a wire through which a direct electric current of 50 thousand volts was supplied. The device developed a maximum speed of about 51 m/s (180 km/h).

At the beginning of my work, I did not give preference to the Biefeld-Brown effect, which turned out to be the final point in my theory, as it had already been confirmed by experiment. However, this effect is useful when there is a strong curvature of space-time. The supporting theories were the Kaluza-Klein theory (dominant), the theory of the appearance of a countercurrent in vortex jets (some facts), the theory of the American ufologist D. McCampbell “Flight Characteristics. Propulsion system of a UFO,” the theory of the Russian scientist Grebennikov about vortex flows.

All other theories, confirmed by experiments, directly or indirectly pointed to the dominant ones: the theories of Kaluza-Klein and Grebennikov. Taking elements of these theories and combining them, I got a general theory (the theory of strong screening of gravity), which directly reduces to the Biefeld-Brown effect, but is more effective than it. In other words The best way Gravity screening based on the Biefeld-Brown effect.

Briefly about the supporting theories:

Kaluza-Klein theory.

At the turn of the 20th century. Henri Poincaré and Hendrik Lorentz investigated the mathematical structure of Maxwell's equations that describe electromagnetic fields. They were especially interested in the symmetries hidden in mathematical expressions, symmetries that were not yet known. It turned out that the famous additional term introduced
Maxwell into equations for restoring the equality of electric and
magnetic fields, corresponds to an electromagnetic field, which has a rich but subtle symmetry that is revealed only through careful mathematical analysis. Lorentz-Poincaré symmetry is similar in spirit to such geometric symmetries as rotation and reflection, but differs from them in one important respect: no one had ever thought of physically mixing space and time. It has always been believed that space is space and time is time. The fact that the Lorentz-Poincaré symmetry includes both components of this pair was strange and unexpected. Essentially the new symmetry could be thought of as rotation, but not just in one space. This rotation also affected time. If you add one time dimension to three spatial dimensions, you get four-dimensional space-time. And Lorentz-Poincaré symmetry is a kind of rotation in space-time. As a result of such rotation, part of the spatial interval is projected onto time and vice versa. The fact that Maxwell's equations are symmetrical with respect to the operation that links together
space and time, was thought-provoking.

Throughout his life, Einstein dreamed of creating a unified field theory in which all the forces of nature would merge together on the basis of pure geometry. He devoted most of his life to the search for such a scheme after the creation of the general theory of relativity. However, ironically, the one who came closest to realizing Einstein’s dream was the little-known Polish physicist Theodor Kaluza, who back in 1921 laid
the foundations of a new and unexpected approach to unifying physics. Kaluza was inspired by geometry's ability to describe gravity; he set out to generalize Einstein's theory by including electromagnetism in geometric
formulation of field theory. This should have been done without violating the sacred
equations of Maxwell's theory of electromagnetism. What Kaluza managed to do is a classic example of the manifestation of creative imagination and physical intuition. Kaluza understood that Maxwell's theory could not be formulated in the language of pure geometry (as we usually understand it), even allowing for the presence of curved space. He found a surprisingly simple solution by generalizing geometry to accommodate Maxwell's theory. To get out of the difficulty, Kaluza found a very unusual, but at the same time unexpectedly convincing way. Kaluza showed that electromagnetism is a kind of gravity, but not ordinary gravity, but gravity in the unobservable dimensions of space. Physicists have long been accustomed to using time as a fourth dimension. The theory of relativity established that space and time themselves are not universal physical concepts, since they inevitably merge into a single four-dimensional structure called space-time. Kaluza actually took the next step: he postulated that there is an additional spatial dimension and the total number of dimensions of space is four, and space-time has five dimensions in total. If we accept this assumption, then, as Kaluza showed, a kind of mathematical miracle will occur. The gravitational field in such a five-dimensional world manifests itself in the form of an ordinary gravitational field plus Maxwell's electromagnetic field if this world is observed from space-time limited by four dimensions. With his bold hypothesis, Kaluza essentially argued that if we expand our
the idea of ​​a world up to five dimensions, then only a single force field will exist in it - gravity.
What we call electromagnetism is just a part of the gravitational field that operates in a fifth extra dimension of space that we cannot visualize. Kaluza's theory not only made it possible to combine gravity and electromagnetism in a single scheme, but also provided a geometry-based description of both force fields. Thus, an electromagnetic wave (for example, a radio wave) in this theory is nothing more than pulsations of the fifth dimension. Mathematically, Einstein's gravitational field in five-dimensional space is exactly and completely equivalent to ordinary gravity plus electromagnetism in four-dimensional space; Of course, this is more than just a coincidence. However, in this case, Kaluza's theory remains mysterious in the sense that such an important fourth dimension of space is not perceived by us at all.

Klein supplemented it. He calculated the perimeter of the loops around the fifth dimension,
using the known value of the elementary electric charge of the electron and other particles, as well as the magnitude of the gravitational interaction between the particles. It turned out to be equal to 10-32
cm, i.e. 1020 times smaller than the size of the atomic nucleus. It is therefore not surprising that we do not notice the fifth dimension: it is twisted on scales that
significantly smaller than the size of any of the structures known to us, even in subnuclear particle physics. Obviously, in this case, the question of the movement of, say, an atom in the fifth dimension does not arise. Rather, this dimension should be thought of as something located within
atom.

The theory of ufologist McCampbell.

Direct interaction with air is possible due to the conductivity of the latter at a certain content of water vapor and carbon dioxide. Why is this force directed upward? This circumstance is mysterious. In a normal experiment in a similar environment, jet engine exhaust would be directed downward. It turns out that if UFOs manage to suppress gravity in some way, then they apparently “share” this achievement with objects located directly below them. All this data should inspire those theorists who are able to see in their equations the possibility of suppressing gravity using electromagnetic radiation.

UFOs leave evidence of thermal effects of some unusual nature on the ground: the roots of grasses turn out to be charred, while the visible part of these plants remains intact. This effect could only be reproduced in the US Air Force laboratory by heating turf samples on a baking sheet from below to a temperature of about 145°C. The main researcher of this phenomenon concluded that the only mechanism for this effect is induction heating from above by the UFO "by a powerful, alternating magnetic field." It seems to us that electromagnetic energy with frequencies from 300 to 3000 MHz or at even higher frequencies is the cause of the following phenomena:

a) The appearance of colored halos around UFOs is mainly due to the glow of noble atmospheric gases.

b) The appearance of flickering white plasma on the surfaces of the UFO. The mechanism of this phenomenon is similar to the phenomenon of ball lightning.

c) Chemical changes detected in the form of different odors.

d) Weakening, up to complete extinction, of the light of car headlights due to an increase in the resistance of the tungsten filaments of the lamps.

e) Stopping internal combustion engines by increasing the resistance of the contacts of the distributors in the ignition system and weakening the current in the primary winding of the coilover.

f) Powerful vibrations of compass needles, magnetic speedometers and rattling (vibrations) of metal road signs.

g) Heating of car batteries due to direct absorption of energy by the acidic electrolyte.

h) Pick-up and electromagnetic interference during the reception of radio (and television) broadcasts and during radio and television broadcasting, by inducing random voltages in the coils and inductances of tuned circuits or by limiting the emission of electrons from tungsten cathodes.

i) Disruptions in the functioning of electrical power networks due to forced activation of isolating relays at substations.

j) Drying of small ponds, grass, bushes and soil due to the resonant absorption of microwave energy by water molecules.

k) Charring or burning of grass roots, insects, wood at UFO landing sites.

m) Warming up asphalt highways to a certain depth and igniting volatile gases.

m) Internal heating of the human body.

o) Feeling of electric shocks by people.

o) Temporary paralysis during close encounters among UFO observers.

In addition to the above, we note: medical experiments show that with pulsed radiation of this energy it is possible

p) Direct stimulation of the human auditory nerve with a buzzing or buzzing sensation.

The above reasoning shows that the UFO movement system is based on some as yet unknown mechanism for reducing their effective mass with a double gain: providing lifting force by zeroing gravity and obtaining enormous accelerations with the help of very moderate forces. The characteristics of the UFO are quite compatible with a well-tested theory, but clearly exceed the limits of possibility. modern technology. However, it seems to us that a well-organized and sufficiently well-resourced research program can make the use of these achievements by humanity a matter of the not too distant future. Although daily human experience inspires us with confidence in the absolute reality and power of the Earth's gravity, the gravitational field is an extremely weak field compared to other fields that exist in nature. Overcoming this field need not be very difficult once we discover how it can be done. Since electromagnetic fields have energy density, gravity influences them, but the effectiveness of this influence is very small. In other words, electric and magnetic fields “interpenetrate” gravitational fields without even the most minimal mutual influence manifesting in one way or another. In observations of UFOs suppressing gravity with an electromagnetic field, we are faced with a great theoretical difficulty: neither in the laboratory nor in nature have we encountered manifestations of such interaction anywhere. However, in the circles of theoretical scientists, “suspicions” have long been expressed that all natural fields are interconnected and that they somehow interact. The interconnection of fields is one of the chapters of the unified field theory, in the development of which some impressive advances have been made, but completely satisfactory solutions have not yet been obtained.

Theory of counterflow in vortex jets (some interesting facts):

The first to pay attention to the effects of a decrease in the weight of bodies under certain conditions was, apparently, the famous Pulkovo astronomer H.A. Kozyrev. While conducting experiments with tops, he noticed that when a top placed on a scale rotates counterclockwise (when viewed from above), its weight turns out to be slightly less than the weight of the same non-rotating top. The effect of reducing the weight of rotating bodies, discovered by Kozyrev, was confirmed in London in 1975 by the English physicist Laithwaite.

Kozyrev’s experiments with rotating bodies were continued in the 70s by Minsk professor A.Y. Veynik. He is known for publishing the textbook “Thermodynamics” in the 60s, the circulation of which was confiscated because the book contained criticism of Einstein’s theory of relativity and the second law of thermodynamics.

As described, in Weinik's experiments the gyroscope, weighed using a system of levers on a precision analytical balance, was covered with a casing to eliminate the influence of thermal effects and air circulation. When the working fluid of the gyroscope rotated in one direction, its weight decreased by 50 mg, and when rotated in the opposite direction, it increased by the same 50 mg.

A.Y. Veinik explains this by saying that “the speed of the points of one part of the rotating flywheel of the gyroscope is added to the speed of the absolute movement of the Earth in space, and the other is subtracted from it. And as a result, an additional force appears directed in the direction where the total absolute speed of the Earth and the flywheel is the smallest ".

But in 1989, at the Dnepropetrovsk Institute of Mechanics of the Academy of Sciences of the Ukrainian SSR, an installation was created consisting of a rotating rotor and a lead weight weighing up to 2 kg placed under it, isolated from it by a metal screen. The co-author of this installation, A. A. Selin, says that when the rotor rotated, the stationary lead load under it lost weight up to 45 g (about 2%). And he concludes that the effect was apparently obtained due to the formation of a “gravitational shadow zone.”

We will not retell Selin’s hypothesis about the centrifugal rejection of a flow of ether by a rotating rotor, supposedly coming to the Earth from outer space, but let us draw attention to the fact that this experiment crosses out Professor Veinik’s version about the emergence of additional forces as a result of the summation of the movements of the Earth and parts of the gyroscope. He convincingly shows that the gyroscope creates a field of “anti-gravity” forces underneath it, directed upward.

It is possible that with the rapid rotation of sufficiently large masses of matter, as, for example, in particularly strong tornadoes, the weakening of the forces of attraction of bodies to the Earth can be so significant that even a not very strong air flow in the central zone of the tornado is enough to easily lift the body to significant height, as is often observed in tornadoes. After all, if a cow or a person in a tornado were lifted and carried only by an air flow, then estimates show that its dynamic pressure would cause severe damage to the victim, which is not observed. It is clear that when the axis of rotation of a gyroscope or vortex is located not vertically, but horizontally or in another direction, the resulting pressure forces of torsion fields will continue to act along the axis of rotation. But then they will no longer have such a noticeable effect on the attraction of bodies to the Earth. It seems that it is these forces that lead to the appearance of a countercurrent in swirling jets and vortex tubes.

Then the pressure of the external air, which was thought to be the driving force of the countercurrent in the swirling jets. In our world, everything consists of matter and almost no antimatter. So bullets, and tornadoes, and planets, and... (you can list them for a long time) rotate only in one direction. In a world made of antimatter, they would rotate in the opposite direction, emitting antineutrinos. But neutrino physics is still a poorly understood area.

Conclusions to the chapter

In the experiments of many researchers, it was found that the weight of bodies slightly decreases during rotation.

Since torsion fields are directed along the axis of rotation of the bodies creating these fields, the flows of virtual particles-quanta of the torsion field must be emitted by rotating bodies along the axes of their rotation.

The theory of vortices from “The Secrets of the Grebennikov Platform”.

The key to understanding the ability to move from one dimension to another lies in determining the shape of the tetrahedron star, which is based on an amazing entity - Merkabah.

This star consists of two interpenetrating tetrahedrons and resembles the Star of David, with the only difference being that the first is three-dimensional. Two interpenetrating tetrahedrons symbolize perfectly balanced male and female energies. The tetrahedral star surrounds every object, not just our bodies.

The tetrahedron fits exactly into the sphere, touching its surface with all 8 vertices. If the points of the sphere with which the 2 coaxial vertices of the tetrahedrons inscribed in it are in contact are taken as poles, then the bases of the tetrahedrons that make it up will be in contact with the sphere at 19.47... degrees northern and southern latitudes.

We have physical, mental and emotional bodies, all of which are shaped like a tetrahedron star. These are three identical fields superimposed on each other, and the only difference between them is that the physical body does not rotate, it is locked. The Merkabah is created from energy fields rotating in opposite directions. The mental tetrahedron star defines the masculine principle, is electrical in nature and rotates to the left. The emotional star-tetrahedron defines the feminine principle, has a magnetic nature and rotates to the right.

The word Mer means fields of light rotating in opposite directions, the word Ka means spirit, and Ba means body or reality. Thus, the Mer-Ka-Ba is a counter-rotating field of light that encompasses both body and spirit. This is a space-time machine. It is also the image that underlies the creation of all things, the geometric shape that surrounds our bodies. This figure begins with us and has microscopic dimensions, like those eight primary cells from which our physical bodies arose. Then it spreads outward all fifty-five feet. At first it has the shape of a star-tetrahedron, then takes the shape of a cube, then the shape of a sphere, and finally forms interpenetrating pyramids.

Again, the counter-rotating light fields of the Merkabah create a vehicle through space-time. Having learned to activate these fields, you can use Merkabah to move around the Universe at the speed of thought.

There, on pp. 116-123, the process of launching Merkabah is described.

At the 1st stage, the male tetrahedron is alternately and periodically filled with shining white light - from above, and the female tetrahedron - from below.

At the 2nd stage - as the intensity of the glow increases, a luminous tube appears, connecting the vertices of both tetrahedra.

At the 3rd stage - where two light streams meet, a sphere begins to form in the tube, which slowly grows.

At the 4th stage, light streams come out from both ends of the tube, and the sphere continues to expand and expand, increasing the glow.

At the 5th stage, the sphere will gain critical mass and flare up like the sun. Then the lit sun will come out and enclose Merkabah in its sphere.

At the 6th stage, when the sphere has not yet reached a state of equilibrium, it needs to be stabilized.

At the 7th stage, the meeting point of the two light streams is moved slightly higher. The large and small spheres will also rise when doing this. A very powerful protective field is created around.

At the 8th stage, the Merkabah fields are brought into opposite rotation.

You, take off!

Note: Doesn't this description remind you of a coaxial helicopter takeoff? There, step - armpit, and - vertical take-off. But there is a radical difference: the thrust vectors of both helicopter rotors are directed upward and in agreement, and the thrust vectors of the merkaba tetrahedrons are directed counter.

The nature of the thrust of vortex devices. Tesla also determined that vortex devices create “thrust”.

At first, he noticed that the slight smoke that had arisen in his laboratory suddenly disappeared. Although there were no windows or open doors.

From the analysis of UFO observations, we know that in many cases these ships become invisible.

Hence: the field of the environment is not eliminated, but only moves apart, enveloping the entire ship (position 3).

Then the super-maneuverable qualities of a UFO, the lack of inertia, are also understandable: if our plane or rocket, at supersonic speed, tried to make a sharp maneuver, the overload would destroy the structure. Not to mention the people.

Finally: the nature of the thrust is pushing.

Upon completion of my theory, I found similarities between the Merkabah and the method of shielding gravity. However, when I was working on my theory, I considered the theory of vortices to be some kind of nonsense, but the very fact that I myself was using electromagnetic vortices suggested thought and cast doubt on the uselessness of the theory of vortices.

General theory.

Suppression of gravity.

Based on the Kaluza-Klein theory, I want to suggest that shielding gravity is possible if you “twist” the electromagnetic field. American scientists tried to do something similar in the last century, when an American destroyer was hidden from sight. The Biefeld-Brown effect is also a curvature electromagnetic field, as a result of which “film disks” levitated in the air.

Let's start with the fact that when the gyroscope rotates, a cylindrical zone of gravity shielding appears below and above it. As I already said, to shield gravity you need to “twist” the electromagnetic field. But so far, in my understanding, no one has been able to “twist” it, but only managed to rotate it, and even then with low frequencies (depending on the strength limit). When rotating well-conducting disks, you can get electrons thrown towards the rim of the disk, that is, at the beginning you get a ring with current, but later, as the rotation speed increases, electrons will fly out from the disk in the horizontal plane. With this course of events, the following effect can be observed:

The electrons move toward the rim of the disk, and the electrons can be seen spiraling until they escape from the disk. A magnetic field is created, along with its lines of force. All this is equivalent to a well-conducting hoop, in which there is a current, and which rotates around some axis that is not its own. But since the emitted electrons cannot close their track being in the weak magnetic field of the Earth, a rotating magnetic field is created in the form of a single-sheet hyperboloid. This magnetic field can interact with the Earth's field, in particular creating a strength gradient or twisting it. But this is just a weak curvature, so gravity was weakly shielded. By the way, in many experiments a decrease in weight is noted when the gyroscope is rotated counterclockwise (when viewed from above), and when rotated clockwise it increases. All this is similar to the “geometry” of the electromagnetic field: Gimlet’s rule.

By rotating a superconducting disk over a powerful electromagnet, Evgeniy Podkletnov received a slight curvature of a strong electromagnetic field. The superconductor is diamagnetic and pushes out the external magnetic field, that is, it shielded the external electromagnetic field (of the electromagnet), and then there is the rotation of the disk, then the network of “frozen” field lines of the disk field, interacting with the field lines of the electromagnet, created a slight (non-intense) twisting of the electromagnetic fields.

But the Searle disk, specially “chemicalized” with ferromagnetic and dielectric layers, generally bent its own electromagnetic field during rotation, which itself began to unwind and, almost zeroing gravity, soared upward, while ionizing the air, which caused the formation of corona discharges. There were displacement currents, conduction currents, and magnetic fields, all of which interacted during rotation. But there was only one such case, after which no one could repeat it, and Searle himself referred to some prophetic dream in which the proportions of the substances of the disk were dictated to him. This is where there was just a strong curvature of the electromagnetic field, and therefore of space-time according to the Kaluza-Klein theory. These are the cases in which Maxwell's equations and little-known gravity are combined. By the way, Nikola Tesla modeled something similar. Here, for example, from the theory of vortexes, Tesla’s unipolar dynamo. “Here Tesla divided the magnetic surfaces of two coaxial disks into sections with spiral curves extending from the center to the outer edge. The unipolar dynamo was capable of producing current after being disconnected from an external power source. Rotation begins, for example, by powering the motor with direct current. At a certain point, the speed of the two disks becomes fast enough to keep the motor-generator running on its own. Spiral grooves on the disks provide nonlinear magnetic field strength in the direction from the periphery of the disk to its center. The direction of the spirals is counter, this indicates Tesla’s use of counter-rotating disks. Two disks ensure the vortex device is balanced in terms of thrust.”

And now Evgeniy Podkletnov still received a pulsed, infrequent reflection of gravity, using an electrostatic field. But the reflection of gravity can be interpreted as a strong curvature of space-time. Let's look at this later when I try to explain the similarity of electrostatic and gravitational fields, and explain superficially, using Maxwell's equations and some transformations, the possibility of strong screening of gravity. Once upon a time, Thomas Brown did the same thing, and received constant shielding of gravity, but little effective (it is possible that his work was embodied in the “Stealth” technology, when the force field of the Biefeld-Brown effect was able to create a flow around electromagnetic fields (waves) radars, without creating a reflection effect, that is, by weakly twisting, it turns around an obstacle rather than a reflection; but this is just a hypothesis, or even an assumption that can simply replace the complex geometry of an object that suppresses electromagnetic waves).

In my theory, I will describe the possibility of a strong “twisting” (curvature) of the magnetic field, as a result of which we will get an electric, or rather electrostatic, due to the predominance of the displacement current, and the influence of the electric on gravity, that is, we will get a strong curvature of gravity. As a result, we will combine the “Podkletnov effect” and the Biefeld-Brown effect, making the strong curvature permanent.

So, let's start with gyroscopes. A single-strip hyperboloid (rotating magnetic field) creates a weak curvature of space-time, and the zone of this shielding extends only until the magnetic induction of the force field (let's call it that) decreases exponentially to the value of the magnetic induction of the Earth.

It is possible to obtain a strong curvature of the electromagnetic field by microwave rotation of 2 magnetic fields in different directions with constant replenishment of the magnetic field. That is, we have three disks. The upper and lower ones are responsible for the rotation of magnetic fields, and in different directions. This is achieved using three-phase alternating current, and we need ultra-high frequency alternating current to obtain microwave rotation. The central disk is the source of the feeding magnetic field, with the induction vector directed upward and perpendicular to the induction vectors of the rotating magnetic fields. Of course, magnetic fields must be very strong, then the magnetic field strengths must be enormous. In this case, the values ​​of magnetic induction must be the same in all disks so that the density of magnetic field fluxes is the same. Taking into account the resulting value of the magnetic induction vector of a three-phase alternating current (rotating magnetic field) and the induction of the feeding field equal to it, we obtain a “twisting” of the magnetic field. In order to obtain strong electromagnetic fields, it is necessary to use a type II superconductor as the winding of the coils, and for twisting to be effective, it is necessary that the rotating magnetic fields do not cancel each other (do not overlap each other so as not to cause pulsations), this is achieved by using bifilar Tesla coils, which should be slightly flattened and maybe even concave on some sides and curved (modified) on the other.

Let's imagine the feeding magnetic field of a superconducting disk as the field of a coil with current. Let's call the central part of the lines of force that are directed vertically or form a hyperboloid, and the lines that bypass the conductor with current - the periphery. In the experiment on the destroyer Eldridge, invisibility was achieved by “expanding the environmental field,” that is, by slightly curving space-time, and enveloping the object in this field. But if you strongly bend space-time, you can get partial suppression of gravity and inertia and complete suppression of shock waves in the case of movement at high speeds. This is achieved by creating a strong force field.

Twisting occurs when the fields rotate in different directions.

Let us imagine the force line of the center of the feeding field (a solid hyperboloid). When the fields rotate in different directions, a rotation of a quarter of a period (one revolution) is sufficient to shift this field line diagonally. Having presented the whole picture of the field lines, we obtain a magnetic beam with a maximum value of induction (a hyperboloid drawn in the center). With further rotation by another quarter, we will get two more nodes, and there will be three in total. Moreover, from the first they will be at equal intervals (above and below), equal.

And the twisting will continue, and at a high speed, determined by the frequency of rotation of the magnetic fields. There are 4 quarters in 1 revolution, then the formula for the dependence of the frequency of rotation of magnetic fields on the number of nodes will be

Where is the number of nodes, and n is the rotation speed in revolutions per second. , and b=8.

The contraction of the border peripheral part of the field towards the center will continue until it reaches the edges of the central disk. Thus, we will obtain a dense magnetic flux in the form of a cylinder, with a base radius equal to the radius of the disk, and a super-dense thread - a magnetic countercurrent in an intense magnetic vortex. That is, a magnetic vortex (a very dense swirling flow) with a step and a magnetic thread with the same step. We have a gradient of the maximum magnetic field strength from the center. From electrodynamics we find that magnetic current creates electric current. The eddy magnetic flux must create a displacement current in the form of a super-dense filament of electric displacement current directed by the vector E against vector IN magnetic thread. But the magnetic thread will create a dense vortex electric flow around itself. Since our magnetic field lines are closed (rotor), then from Maxwell’s equations they should create a displacement and conduction current (more on the equations later). We have a conduction current in a superconductor, but a displacement current is formed during the twisting of the magnetic flux. Having presented the whole picture of the electromagnetic field, we find that electric and magnetic fields are embedded in each other. It is this phenomenon, based on all the stated theories, in particular the Kaluza-Klein theory, that creates a powerful force field capable of strongly curving space-time (capable of prolonging the Podkletnov effect), and the displacement current is capable of creating a secondary gravitational field (implementing the Biefeld-Brown effect) . Since the intensity vector of the secondary gravitational field is directed towards the positive pole (against the vector E), that is, in the direction of the displacement current and vector IN. That is, shielding external gravity and creating secondary gravity inside the cylindrical zone makes it possible to suppress gravity, bringing it closer to zero.

Similarities between gravitational and electrostatic fields. A homogeneous gravitational field and the impossibility of its existence in our Universe.

The similarities between electric and gravitational fields have long led many scientists to speculate. The interaction forces between charges and masses are similar. Decreases with the square of the distance. But it’s better to take charge and mass separately and consider them. Then the strengths of both fields ( E And g) can be introduced into proportion and, after certain transformations, can be interchanged.

Where is the “scale factor”,

When =1, .

If we have a positive elementary charge, then, as the Biefeld-Brown effect explains, the field lines of the vector g are straight (the curvature of space-time is the same) and are included in the charge. Therefore, Brown improved his gravitor, using a displacement and increase in the electrical potential, thereby trying to minimize the inhomogeneity of the gravitational field, that is, the inhomogeneity of the curvature of space-time. And after that, create a secondary gravitational field, the lines of tension of which would enter the positive charge and exit the negative one. Everything would be much simpler if the gravitational field were uniform, that is, the curvature of space-time would be the same everywhere. But on Earth these inhomogeneities are minimal than near a black hole, where even light is delayed. This is due to the difference in mass between objects, and distances play a role here. If the masses were the same everywhere, then the strength of the gravitational field would be the same everywhere, which means a uniform gravitational field, but there are no such fields. Otherwise, the Biefeld-Brown effect would have been used for a long time and everywhere. The uniformity of the electrostatic field implies the same modulus of charge values. Therefore, “anti-gravity” is impossible, but suppression of gravity is possible. Let's assume that we managed to create an inhomogeneity, then the gravitational field can be described using Maxwell's equations for the electromagnetic field. I do not touch on the quantum nature of the field, although light is an electromagnetic wave and particle, we will get by with only a superficial explanation of the gravitational field.

Then, when twisting, we will again use the rotor operation:

This will give us electromagnetic beams.

On the grounds, ; and also assuming the gravitational field to be homogeneous, we obtain

These equations show the possibility of suppressing gravity by twisting electromagnetic fields. When electromagnetic beams are formed (divergence of gradients E And H), which create both gravity shielding and electrostatic potential (volume charge density gradient, that is, the Biefeld-Brown effect). Thus, with a uniform gravitational field, it would be possible to completely suppress gravity.

Based on a uniform gravitational field, the following formulas could be given:

That is, the flow of gravitational field intensity tends to the density of the mass, entering it. But we should keep quiet about rotation for now.

Let's consider the energy balance in the system:

When twisting the electromagnetic field:

Since the divergence rotor is zero, there is no radiation, that is, all the recharge power (conduction current density of the central disk) goes to change the vortex energy

This can be easily verified by simulating Poynting vectors on an electromagnetic field; it turns out that they are directed against each other, that is, they form standing waves inside a cylindrical force field and do not transfer energy. Radiation from the system can only come from ultra-high-frequency rotation of magnetic fields.

The fact that the rates of formation of electromagnetic beams can be high should also not go unnoticed. This means that the curvature of space-time is instantaneous.

To do this, we will find the distance where the feeding magnetic field will decrease to the Earth’s magnetic field. This will be a sphere. When the electromagnetic field is twisted, a cylinder is formed. Since twisting occurs, the sphere is transformed into a cylinder, therefore, knowing the radius of the sphere and the radius of the cylinder (radius of the disk), you can find out the height of the cylinder.

Let's compare it with the time it takes for an electromagnetic wave to travel.

Of course, with microwave rotation the number of nodes increases, and if the frequency is about 300 MHz, then the time for the appearance of nodes will be faster than the passage of an electromagnetic wave in a vacuum. And this means an instantaneous curvature of space-time. All this may mean that first there will be a curvature of space-time during time t´, and then a secondary gravitational field will be created during time t. This will be much more effective than all known methods of suppressing gravity.

The speed of space-time curvature will exceed the speed of light in free space.

Akintev Ivan Konstantinovich(29.07.87 – 1.11.07). Send opinions and criticism by email. mail. If you would like to get in touch, tel. 89200120912 .

Modern achievements in high-energy physics increasingly strengthen the idea that the diversity of the properties of Nature is due to interacting elementary particles. It is apparently impossible to give an informal definition of an elementary particle, since we are talking about the most primary elements of matter. At a qualitative level, we can say that truly elementary particles are physical objects that do not have component parts.
It is obvious that the question of the elementary nature of physical objects is primarily an experimental question. For example, it has been experimentally established that molecules, atoms, and atomic nuclei have an internal structure indicating the presence of constituent parts. Therefore, they cannot be considered elementary particles. More recently, it was discovered that particles such as mesons and baryons also have an internal structure and, therefore, are not elementary. At the same time, the internal structure of the electron has never been observed, and, therefore, it can be classified as an elementary particle. Another example of an elementary particle is a quantum of light - a photon.
Modern experimental data indicate that there are only four qualitatively different types of interactions in which elementary particles participate. These interactions are called fundamental, that is, the most basic, initial, primary. If we take into account all the diversity of properties of the World around us, then it seems absolutely surprising that in Nature there are only four fundamental interactions responsible for all natural phenomena.
In addition to qualitative differences, fundamental interactions differ quantitatively in the strength of their impact, which is characterized by the term intensity. As the intensity increases, the fundamental interactions are arranged in the following order: gravitational, weak, electromagnetic and strong. Each of these interactions is characterized by a corresponding parameter called the coupling constant, the numerical value of which determines the intensity of the interaction.
How do physical objects carry out fundamental interactions with each other? At a qualitative level, the answer to this question is as follows. Fundamental interactions are carried by quanta. Moreover, in the quantum field, fundamental interactions correspond to the corresponding elementary particles, called elementary particles - carriers of interactions. In the process of interaction, a physical object emits particles - carriers of interaction, which are absorbed by another physical object. This leads to the fact that objects seem to sense each other, their energy, nature of movement, state change, that is, they experience mutual influence.
In modern high-energy physics, the idea of ​​unifying fundamental interactions is becoming increasingly important. According to the ideas of unification, in Nature there is only one single fundamental interaction, which manifests itself in specific situations as gravitational, or weak, or electromagnetic, or strong, or some combination of them. The successful implementation of the ideas of unification was the creation of the now standard unified theory of electromagnetic and weak interactions. Work is underway to develop a unified theory of electromagnetic, weak and strong interactions, called the grand unification theory. Attempts are being made to find a principle for unifying all four fundamental interactions. We will sequentially consider the main manifestations of fundamental interactions.

Gravitational interaction

This interaction is universal in nature, all types of matter, all natural objects, all elementary particles participate in it! The generally accepted classical (non-quantum) theory of gravitational interaction is Einstein's general theory of relativity. Gravity determines the movement of planets in star systems and plays important role in processes occurring in stars, it controls the evolution of the Universe, and in terrestrial conditions it manifests itself as a force of mutual attraction. Of course, we have listed only a small number of examples from the huge list of gravity effects.
According to the general theory of relativity, gravity is related to the curvature of space-time and is described in terms of so-called Riemannian geometry. Currently, all experimental and observational data on gravity fit within the framework of the general theory of relativity. However, data on strong gravitational fields are essentially lacking, so the experimental aspects of this theory contain many questions. This situation gives rise to various alternative theories of gravity, the predictions of which are practically indistinguishable from the predictions of general relativity for physical effects in the Solar System, but lead to different consequences in strong gravitational fields.
If we neglect all relativistic effects and limit ourselves to weak stationary gravitational fields, then the general theory of relativity is reduced to the Newtonian theory of universal gravitation. In this case, as is known, the potential energy of interaction of two point particles with masses m 1 and m 2 is given by the relation

where r is the distance between particles, G is the Newtonian gravitational constant, which plays the role of a gravitational interaction constant. This relationship shows that the potential interaction energy V(r) is nonzero for any finite r and falls to zero very slowly. For this reason, the gravitational interaction is said to be long-range.
Of the many physical predictions of the general theory of relativity, we note three. It has been theoretically established that gravitational disturbances can propagate in space in the form of waves called gravitational waves. Propagating weak gravitational disturbances are in many ways similar to electromagnetic waves. Their speed is equal to the speed of light, they have two states of polarization, and they are characterized by the phenomena of interference and diffraction. However, due to the extremely weak interaction of gravitational waves with matter, their direct experimental observation has not yet been possible. Nevertheless, data from some astronomical observations on energy loss in double star systems indicate the possible existence of gravitational waves in nature.
A theoretical study of the equilibrium conditions of stars within the framework of the general theory of relativity shows that, under certain conditions, sufficiently massive stars can begin to collapse catastrophically. This turns out to be possible at fairly late stages of the star’s evolution, when the internal pressure caused by the processes responsible for the star’s luminosity is not able to balance the pressure of gravitational forces tending to compress the star. As a result, the compression process cannot be stopped by anything. The described physical phenomenon, predicted theoretically within the framework of the general theory of relativity, is called gravitational collapse. Studies have shown that if the radius of a star becomes less than the so-called gravitational radius

Rg = 2GM/c2,

where M is the mass of the star, and c is the speed of light, then for an external observer the star goes out. No information about the processes taking place in this star can reach an external observer. In this case, bodies falling on a star freely cross the gravitational radius. If an observer is meant as such a body, then he will not notice anything other than an increase in gravity. Thus, there is a region of space into which one can enter, but from which nothing can come out, including a light beam. Such a region of space is called a black hole. The existence of black holes is one of the theoretical predictions of the general theory of relativity; some alternative theories of gravity are constructed precisely in such a way that they prohibit this type of phenomenon. In this regard, the question of the reality of black holes is extremely important. Currently, there is observational data indicating the presence of black holes in the Universe.
Within the framework of the general theory of relativity, it was possible for the first time to formulate the problem of the evolution of the Universe. Thus, the Universe as a whole becomes not a subject of speculative speculation, but an object of physical science. The branch of physics that deals with the Universe as a whole is called cosmology. It is now considered firmly established that we live in an expanding universe.
The modern picture of the evolution of the Universe is based on the idea that the Universe, including its attributes such as space and time, arose as a result of a special physical phenomenon called the Big Bang, and has been expanding ever since. According to the theory of the evolution of the Universe, the distances between distant galaxies should increase with time, and the entire Universe should be filled with thermal radiation with a temperature of about 3 K. These predictions of the theory are in excellent agreement with astronomical observational data. Moreover, estimates show that the age of the Universe, that is, the time that has passed since the Big Bang, is about 10 billion years. As for the details of the Big Bang, this phenomenon has been poorly studied and we can talk about the mystery of the Big Bang as a challenge to physical science as a whole. It is possible that the explanation of the Big Bang mechanism is associated with new, as yet unknown laws of Nature. The generally accepted modern view of a possible solution to the Big Bang problem is based on the idea of ​​combining the theory of gravity and quantum mechanics.

The concept of quantum gravity

Is it even possible to talk about quantum manifestations of gravitational interaction? As is commonly believed, the principles of quantum mechanics are universal and apply to any physical object. In this sense, the gravitational field is no exception. Theoretical studies show that at the quantum level, gravitational interaction is carried by an elementary particle called a graviton. It can be noted that the graviton is a massless boson with spin 2. The gravitational interaction between particles caused by the graviton exchange is conventionally depicted as follows:

The particle emits a graviton, causing its state of motion to change. Another particle absorbs the graviton and also changes the state of its motion. As a result, particles interact with each other.
As we have already noted, the coupling constant characterizing gravitational interaction is the Newtonian constant G. It is well known that G is a dimensional quantity. Obviously, to estimate the intensity of interaction it is convenient to have a dimensionless coupling constant. To obtain such a constant, you can use the fundamental constants: (Planck's constant) and c (the speed of light) - and introduce some reference mass, for example the proton mass m p. Then the dimensionless coupling constant of gravitational interaction will be

Gm p 2 /(c) ~ 6·10 -39 ,

which, of course, is a very small value.
It is interesting to note that from the fundamental constants G, , c it is possible to construct quantities that have the dimensions of length, time, density, mass, and energy. These quantities are called Planck quantities. In particular, the Planck length l Pl and Planck time t Pl look like this:

Each fundamental physical constant characterizes a certain range of physical phenomena: G - gravitational phenomena, - quantum, c - relativistic. Therefore, if some relation simultaneously includes G, , c, then this means that this relation describes a phenomenon that is simultaneously gravitational, quantum and relativistic. Thus, the existence of Planck quantities indicates the possible existence of corresponding phenomena in Nature.
Of course, the numerical values ​​of l Pl and t Pl are very small compared to the characteristic values ​​of quantities in the macrocosm. But this only means that quantum-gravitational effects manifest themselves weakly. They could be significant only when the characteristic parameters became comparable to the Planck values.
A distinctive feature of the phenomena of the microworld is the fact that physical quantities are subject to so-called quantum fluctuations. This means that with repeated measurements of a physical quantity in a certain state, in principle, different numerical values ​​should be obtained, due to the uncontrolled interaction of the device with the observed object. Let us remember that gravity is associated with the manifestation of the curvature of space-time, that is, with the geometry of space-time. Therefore, it should be expected that at times of the order of t Pl and distances of the order of l Pl, the geometry of space-time should become a quantum object, the geometric characteristics should experience quantum fluctuations. In other words, at Planck scales there is no fixed space-time geometry; figuratively speaking, space-time is a seething foam.
A consistent quantum theory of gravity has not been constructed. Due to the extremely small values ​​of l Pl, t Pl, it should be expected that in any foreseeable future it will not be possible to carry out experiments in which quantum-gravitational effects would manifest themselves. Therefore, theoretical research into questions of quantum gravity remains the only way forward. Are there, however, phenomena where quantum gravity might be significant? Yes, there are, and we have already talked about them. This is gravitational collapse and the Big Bang. According to the classical theory of gravity, an object subject to gravitational collapse should be compressed to an arbitrarily small size. This means that its dimensions can become comparable to l Pl, where the classical theory is no longer applicable. In the same way, during the Big Bang, the age of the Universe was comparable to tPl and its dimensions were of the order of lPl. This means that understanding the physics of the Big Bang is impossible within the framework of classical theory. Thus, a description of the final stage of gravitational collapse and the initial stage of the evolution of the Universe can only be carried out using the quantum theory of gravity.

Weak interaction

This interaction is the weakest of the fundamental interactions experimentally observed in the decays of elementary particles, where quantum effects are fundamentally significant. Let us recall that quantum manifestations of gravitational interaction have never been observed. Weak interaction is distinguished using the following rule: if an elementary particle called a neutrino (or antineutrino) participates in the interaction process, then this interaction is weak.

A typical example of the weak interaction is the beta decay of a neutron

Np + e - + e,

where n is a neutron, p is a proton, e is an electron, e is an electron antineutrino. It should, however, be borne in mind that the above rule does not mean at all that any act of weak interaction must be accompanied by a neutrino or antineutrino. It is known that a large number of neutrinoless decays occur. As an example, we can note the process of decay of a lambda hyperon into a proton p and a negatively charged pion π − . According to modern concepts, the neutron and proton are not truly elementary particles, but consist of elementary particles called quarks.
The intensity of the weak interaction is characterized by the Fermi coupling constant G F . The constant G F is dimensional. To form a dimensionless quantity, it is necessary to use some reference mass, for example the proton mass m p. Then the dimensionless coupling constant will be

G F m p 2 ~ 10 -5 .

It can be seen that the weak interaction is much more intense than the gravitational interaction.
The weak interaction, unlike the gravitational interaction, is short-range. This means that the weak force between particles only comes into play if the particles are close enough to each other. If the distance between particles exceeds a certain value called the characteristic radius of interaction, the weak interaction does not manifest itself. It has been experimentally established that the characteristic radius of weak interaction is about 10 -15 cm, that is, weak interaction is concentrated at distances smaller than the size of the atomic nucleus.
Why can we talk about weak interaction as an independent type of fundamental interaction? The answer is simple. It has been established that there are processes of transformation of elementary particles that are not reduced to gravitational, electromagnetic and strong interactions. A good example showing that there are three qualitatively different interactions in nuclear phenomena comes from radioactivity. Experiments indicate the presence of three various types radioactivity: -, - and -radioactive decays. In this case, -decay is due to strong interaction, -decay is due to electromagnetic interaction. The remaining -decay cannot be explained by the electromagnetic and strong interactions, and we are forced to accept that there is another fundamental interaction, called the weak. In the general case, the need to introduce weak interaction is due to the fact that processes occur in nature in which electromagnetic and strong decays are prohibited by conservation laws.
Although the weak interaction is significantly concentrated within the nucleus, it has certain macroscopic manifestations. As we have already noted, it is associated with the process of β-radioactivity. In addition, the weak interaction plays an important role in the so-called thermonuclear reactions responsible for the mechanism of energy release in stars.
The most amazing property of the weak interaction is the existence of processes in which mirror asymmetry is manifested. At first glance, it seems obvious that the difference between the concepts left and right is arbitrary. Indeed, the processes of gravitational, electromagnetic and strong interaction are invariant with respect to spatial inversion, which carries out mirror reflection. It is said that in such processes the spatial parity P is conserved. However, it has been experimentally established that weak processes can proceed with non-conservation of spatial parity and, therefore, seem to sense the difference between left and right. Currently, there is solid experimental evidence that parity nonconservation in weak interactions is universal in nature; it manifests itself not only in the decays of elementary particles, but also in nuclear and even atomic phenomena. It should be recognized that mirror asymmetry is a property of Nature at the most fundamental level.
Parity nonconservation in weak interactions seemed such an unusual property that almost immediately after its discovery, theorists began trying to show that there was in fact complete symmetry between left and right, only it had a deeper meaning than previously thought. Mirror reflection must be accompanied by the replacement of particles with antiparticles (charge conjugation C), and then all fundamental interactions must be invariant. However, it was later established that this invariance is not universal. There are weak decays of the so-called long-lived neutral kaons into pions π + , π − , which would be prohibited if the indicated invariance actually took place. Thus, a distinctive property of the weak interaction is its CP non-invariance. It is possible that this property is responsible for the fact that matter in the Universe significantly prevails over antimatter, built from antiparticles. The world and the antiworld are asymmetrical.
The question of which particles are carriers of the weak interaction has been unclear for a long time. Understanding was achieved relatively recently within the framework of the unified theory of electroweak interactions - the Weinberg-Salam-Glashow theory. It is now generally accepted that the carriers of the weak interaction are the so-called W ± and Z 0 bosons. These are charged W ± and neutral Z 0 elementary particles with spin 1 and masses equal in order of magnitude to 100 m p .

Electromagnetic interaction

All charged bodies, all charged elementary particles participate in electromagnetic interaction. In this sense, it is quite universal. The classical theory of electromagnetic interaction is Maxwellian electrodynamics. The electron charge e is taken as the coupling constant.
If we consider two point charges q 1 and q 2 at rest, then their electromagnetic interaction will be reduced to a known electrostatic force. This means that the interaction is long-range and decays slowly as the distance between the charges increases.
The classical manifestations of electromagnetic interaction are well known, and we will not dwell on them. From the point of view of quantum theory, the carrier of electromagnetic interaction is the elementary particle photon - a massless boson with spin 1. Quantum electromagnetic interaction between charges is conventionally depicted as follows:

A charged particle emits a photon, causing its state of motion to change. Another particle absorbs this photon and also changes its state of motion. As a result, the particles seem to sense the presence of each other. It is well known that electric charge is a dimensional quantity. It is convenient to introduce the dimensionless coupling constant of electromagnetic interaction. To do this, you need to use the fundamental constants and c. As a result, we arrive at the following dimensionless coupling constant, called the fine structure constant in atomic physics α = e 2 /c ≈1/137.

It is easy to see that this constant significantly exceeds the constants of gravitational and weak interactions.
From a modern point of view, electromagnetic and weak interactions represent different aspects of a single electroweak interaction. A unified theory of electroweak interaction has been created - the Weinberg-Salam-Glashow theory, which explains all aspects of electromagnetic and weak interactions from a unified position. Is it possible to understand at a qualitative level how the division of the combined interaction into separate, seemingly independent interactions occurs?
As long as the characteristic energies are sufficiently small, the electromagnetic and weak interactions are separated and do not affect each other. As the energy increases, their mutual influence begins, and at sufficiently high energies these interactions merge into a single electroweak interaction. The characteristic unification energy is estimated in order of magnitude to be 10 2 GeV (GeV is short for gigaelectron-volt, 1 GeV = 10 9 eV, 1 eV = 1.6 10 -12 erg = 1.6 10 19 J). For comparison, we note that the characteristic energy of an electron in the ground state of a hydrogen atom is about 10 -8 GeV, the characteristic binding energy of an atomic nucleus is about 10 -2 GeV, the characteristic binding energy solid about 10 -10 GeV. Thus, the characteristic energy of the combination of electromagnetic and weak interactions is enormous compared to the characteristic energies in atomic and nuclear physics. For this reason, electromagnetic and weak interactions do not manifest their single essence in ordinary physical phenomena.

Strong interaction

The strong interaction is responsible for the stability of atomic nuclei. Since the atomic nuclei of most chemical elements are stable, it is clear that the interaction that keeps them from decay must be quite strong. It is well known that nuclei consist of protons and neutrons. To prevent positively charged protons from scattering in different directions, it is necessary to have attractive forces between them that exceed the forces of electrostatic repulsion. It is the strong interaction that is responsible for these attractive forces.
A characteristic feature of the strong interaction is its charge independence. The nuclear forces of attraction between protons, between neutrons, and between a proton and a neutron are essentially the same. It follows that from the point of view of strong interactions, the proton and neutron are indistinguishable and a single term is used for them nucleon, that is, a particle of the nucleus.

The characteristic scale of the strong interaction can be illustrated by considering two nucleons at rest. The theory leads to the potential energy of their interaction in the form of the Yukawa potential

where the value r 0 ≈10 -13 cm and coincides in order of magnitude with the characteristic size of the nucleus, g is the coupling constant of the strong interaction. This relationship shows that the strong interaction is short-range and is essentially completely concentrated at distances not exceeding the characteristic size of the nucleus. When r > r 0 it practically disappears. A well-known macroscopic manifestation of the strong interaction is the effect of radioactivity. However, it should be kept in mind that the Yukawa potential is not a universal property of the strong interaction and is not related to its fundamental aspects.
Currently, there is a quantum theory of strong interaction, called quantum chromodynamics. According to this theory, the carriers of the strong interaction are elementary particles - gluons. According to modern concepts, particles participating in the strong interaction and called hadrons consist of elementary particles - quarks.
Quarks are fermions with spin 1/2 and non-zero mass. The most surprising property of quarks is their fractional electric charge. Quarks form into three pairs (three generations of doublets), denoted as follows:

u	c
d	s	b

Each type of quark is commonly called a flavor, so there are six quark flavors. In this case, u-, c-, t-quarks have an electric charge of 2/3|e| , and d-, s-, b-quarks are the electric charge -1/3|e|, where e is the charge of the electron. In addition, there are three quarks of a given flavor. They differ in a quantum number called color, which has three values: yellow, blue, red. Each quark corresponds to an antiquark, which has an opposite electric charge in relation to the given quark and a so-called anticolor: anti-yellow, anti-blue, anti-red. Taking into account the number of flavors and colors, we see that there are a total of 36 quarks and antiquarks.
Quarks interact with each other through the exchange of eight gluons, which are massless bosons with spin 1. As they interact, the colors of the quarks can change. In this case, the strong interaction is conventionally depicted as follows:

The quark that is part of the hadron emits a gluon, due to which the state of motion of the hadron changes. This gluon is absorbed by a quark that is part of another hadron and changes the state of its motion. As a result, the hadrons interact with each other.
Nature is designed in such a way that the interaction of quarks always leads to the formation of colorless bound states, which are precisely hadrons. For example, a proton and a neutron are made up of three quarks: p = uud, n = udd. The pion π − is composed of a quark u and an antiquark: π − = u. A distinctive feature of quark-quark interaction through gluons is that as the distance between quarks decreases, their interaction weakens. This phenomenon is called asymptotic freedom and leads to the fact that quarks inside hadrons can be considered as free particles. Asymptotic freedom follows naturally from quantum chromodynamics. There are experimental and theoretical indications that as the distance increases, the interaction between quarks should increase, due to which it is energetically favorable for quarks to be inside the hadron. This means that we can only observe colorless objects - hadrons. Single quarks and gluons, which have color, cannot exist in a free state. The phenomenon of confinement of elementary particles with color inside hadrons is called confinement. Various models have been proposed to explain confinement, but a consistent description following from the first principles of the theory has not yet been constructed. From a qualitative point of view, the difficulties arise from the fact that, having color, gluons interact with all colored objects, including each other. For this reason, quantum chromodynamics is an essentially nonlinear theory, and the approximate research methods adopted in quantum electrodynamics and electroweak theory turn out to be not entirely adequate in the theory of strong interactions.

Trends in merging interactions

We see that at the quantum level all fundamental interactions manifest themselves in the same way. An elementary particle of a substance emits an elementary particle - a carrier of interaction, which is absorbed by another elementary particle of a substance. This leads to the interaction of particles of matter with each other.
The dimensionless coupling constant of the strong interaction can be constructed by analogy with the fine structure constant in the form g2/(c)10. If we compare the dimensionless coupling constants, it is easy to see that the weakest is the gravitational interaction, followed by the weak, electromagnetic and strong.
If we take into account the already developed unified theory of electroweak interactions, now called standard, and follow the trend of unification, then the problem of constructing a unified theory of electroweak and strong interactions arises. Currently, models of such a unified theory have been created, called the grand unification model. All these models have many points in common; in particular, the characteristic unification energy turns out to be on the order of 10 15 GeV, which significantly exceeds the characteristic unification energy of electromagnetic and weak interactions. It follows that direct experimental research into the grand unification looks problematic even in the fairly distant future. For comparison, we note that the highest energy achievable with modern accelerators does not exceed 10 3 GeV. Therefore, if any experimental data regarding the grand unification are obtained, they can only be of an indirect nature. In particular, grand unified models predict proton decay and the existence of a large-mass magnetic monopole. Experimental confirmation of these predictions would be a grand triumph for unification tendencies.
The general picture of the division of the single great interaction into separate strong, weak and electromagnetic interactions is as follows. At energies of the order of 10 15 GeV and higher, there is a single interaction. When the energy falls below 10 15 GeV, the strong and electroweak forces are separated from each other and are represented as different fundamental forces. With a further decrease in energy below 10 2 GeV, the weak and electromagnetic interactions separate. As a result, on the energy scale characteristic of the physics of macroscopic phenomena, the three interactions under consideration do not appear to have a single nature.
Let us now note that the energy of 10 15 GeV is not so far from the Planck energy

at which quantum-gravitational effects become significant. Therefore, the grand unified theory necessarily leads to the problem of quantum gravity. If we further follow the trend of unification, we must accept the idea of ​​​​the existence of one comprehensive fundamental interaction, which is divided into separate gravitational, strong, weak and electromagnetic sequentially as the energy decreases from the Planck value to energies less than 10 2 GeV.
The construction of such a grandiose unifying theory is apparently not feasible within the framework of the system of ideas that led to the standard theory of electroweak interactions and grand unification models. It is necessary to attract new, perhaps seemingly crazy, ideas, ideas, and methods. Despite very interesting approaches developed recently, such as supergravity and string theory, the problem of unifying all fundamental interactions remains open.

Conclusion

So, we have reviewed the basic information regarding the four fundamental interactions of Nature. The microscopic and macroscopic manifestations of these interactions and the picture of physical phenomena in which they play an important role are briefly described.
Wherever possible, we tried to trace the trend of unification, note the common features of fundamental interactions, and provide data on the characteristic scales of phenomena. Of course, the material presented here does not pretend to be complete and does not contain many important details necessary for a systematic presentation. A detailed description of the issues we have raised requires the use of the entire arsenal of methods of modern theoretical high-energy physics and is beyond the scope of this article, popular science literature. Our goal was to present the general picture of the achievements of modern theoretical high-energy physics and the trends in its development. We sought to arouse the reader’s interest in an independent, more detailed study of the material. Of course, with this approach certain coarsening is inevitable.
The proposed list of references allows a more prepared reader to deepen his understanding of the issues discussed in the article.

1. Okun L.B. a, b, g, Z. M.: Nauka, 1985.
2. Okun L.B. Physics of elementary particles. M.: Nauka, 1984.
3. Novikov I.D. How the Universe exploded. M.: Nauka, 1988.
4. Friedman D., van. Nieuwenhuizen P. // Uspekhi fiz. Sci. 1979. T. 128. N 135.
5. Hawking S. From the Big Bang to Black Holes: A Brief History of Time. M.: Mir, 1990.
6. Davis P. Superpower: Searches for a unified theory of nature. M.: Mir, 1989.
7. Zeldovich Ya.B., Khlopov M.Yu. The drama of ideas in the knowledge of nature. M.: Nauka, 1987.
8. Gottfried K., Weiskopf W. Concepts of elementary particle physics. M.: Mir, 1988.
9. Coughlan G.D., Dodd J.E. The Ideas of Particle Physics. Cambridge: Cambridge Univ. Press, 1993.

Chapter III. Main theoretical results.

3.1. Unified field theory is the theory of physical vacuum.

The deductive method of constructing physical theories allowed the author to first geometrize the equations of electrodynamics (solve the minimum program) and then geometrize the fields of matter and thus complete Einstein’s maximum program to create a unified field theory. However, it turned out that the final completion of the unified field theory program was the construction of the theory of physical vacuum.

The first thing we must demand from a unified field theory is:

a) a geometric approach to the problem of combining gravitational, electromagnetic, strong and weak interactions based on exact solutions of equations (vacuum equations);

b) prediction of new types of interactions;

c) unification of the theory of relativity and quantum theory, i.e. construction of a perfect (in accordance with Einstein’s opinion) quantum theory;

Let us briefly show how the theory of physical vacuum satisfies these requirements.

3.2. Unification of electro-gravitational interactions.

Let's say that we need to create a physical theory that describes such an elementary particle as a proton. This particle has mass, electrical charge, nuclear charge, spin and other physical characteristics. This means that the proton has a superinteraction and requires superunification of interactions for its theoretical description.

By superunification of interactions, physicists understand the unification of gravitational, electromagnetic, strong and weak interactions. Currently, this work is carried out on the basis of an inductive approach, when a theory is built by describing a large number of experimental data. Despite the significant expenditure of material and mental resources, the solution to this problem is far from complete. From the point of view of A. Einstein, the inductive approach to the construction of complex physical theories is futile, since such theories turn out to be “meaningless”, describing a huge amount of disparate experimental data.

In addition, theories such as Maxwell-Dirac electrodynamics or Einstein’s theory of gravity belong to the class of fundamental ones. Solving the field equations of these theories leads to a fundamental potential of the Coulomb-Newtonian form:

In the region where the above fundamental theories are valid, the Coulomb and Newton potentials absolutely accurately describe electromagnetic and gravitational phenomena. Unlike the theory of electromagnetism and gravity, strong and weak interactions are described on the basis of phenomenological theories. In such theories, interaction potentials are not found from solutions of equations, but are introduced by their creators, as they say, “by hand.” For example, to describe the nuclear interaction of protons or neutrons with the nuclei of various elements (iron, copper, gold, etc.) in modern scientific literature there are about a dozen hand-written nuclear potentials.

Any researcher is not deprived common sense understands that combining fundamental theory with phenomenological theory is like crossing a cow with a motorcycle! Therefore, first of all, it is necessary to build a fundamental theory of strong and weak interactions, and only after that does it become possible to informally unify them.

But even in the case when we have two fundamental theories, such as, for example, the classical electrodynamics of Maxwell-Lorentz and Einstein’s theory of gravity, their informal unification is impossible. Indeed, the Maxwell-Lorentz theory considers the electromagnetic field against the background of flat space, while in Einstein's theory the gravitational field has a geometric nature and is considered as a curvature of space. To combine these two theories it is necessary: ​​either to consider both fields as given against the background of flat space (like the electromagnetic field in Maxwell-Lorentz electrodynamics), or to reduce both fields to the curvature of space (like the gravitational field in Einstein’s theory of gravity).

From the equations of the physical vacuum follow fully geometrized Einstein equations (B.1), which do not formally combine gravitational and electromagnetic interactions, since in these Equations both gravitational and electromagnetic fields turn out to be geometrized. Exact solution of these equations results in a unified electro-gravitational potential, which describes the unified electro-gravitational interactions in a non-formal way.

A solution that describes a spherically symmetric stable vacuum excitation with mass M and charge Ze(i.e. a particle with these characteristics) contains two constants: its gravitational radius r g and electromagnetic radius r e. These radii determine the Ricci torsion and Riemann curvature generated by the mass and charge of the particle. If the mass and charge become zero (the particle goes into vacuum), then both radii disappear. In this case, the torsion and curvature of the Weizenbeck space also vanish, i.e. the space of events becomes flat (absolute vacuum).

Gravitational r g and electromagnetic r e radii form three-dimensional spheres from which the gravitational and electromagnetic fields of particles begin ( see fig. 24). For all elementary particles, the electromagnetic radius is much greater than the gravitational radius. For example, for an electron r g= 9.84xl0 -56, and r e= 5.6x10 -13 cm. Although these radii have a finite value, the density of the gravitational and electromagnetic matter of the particle (this follows from the exact solution of the vacuum equations) is concentrated at a point. Therefore, in most experiments, the electron behaves like a point particle.

Rice. 24. A spherically symmetric particle with mass and charge born from a vacuum consists of two spheres with radii r g and r e. Letters G And E denote static gravitational and electromagnetic fields, respectively.

3.3. Unification of gravitational, electromagnetic and strong interactions.

A great achievement of the theory of physical vacuum is a whole series of new interaction potentials obtained from solving the vacuum equations (A) and (B). These potentials appear as a complement to the Coulomb-Newtonian interaction. One of these potentials decreases with distance faster than 1/r, i.e. the forces generated by it act (like nuclear ones) at short distances. In addition, this potential is non-zero, even when the charge of the particle is zero ( rice. 25). A similar property of charge independence of nuclear forces was discovered experimentally long ago.

Rice. 25. Potential energy of nuclear interaction found from solving the vacuum equations. Relation between nuclear and electromagnetic radii r N = | r e|/2,8.

Rice. 26. Theoretical calculations obtained from solving the vacuum equations (solid curve) are quite well confirmed by experiments on the electro-nuclear interaction of protons and copper nuclei.

On rice. 25 the potential energy of interaction of a neutron (neutron charge is zero) and a proton with a nucleus is presented. For comparison, the Coulomb potential energy of repulsion between the proton and the nucleus is given. The figure shows that at small distances from the nucleus, Coulomb repulsion is replaced by nuclear attraction, which is described by a new constant r N- nuclear radius. From experimental data it was possible to establish that the value of this constant is about 10 -14 cm. Accordingly, the forces generated by the new constant and the new potential begin to act at distances ( r I) from the center of the core. It is at these distances that nuclear forces begin to act.

r I = (100 - 200)r N= 10 -12 cm.

On rice. 25 nuclear radius is determined by the relation r N = |r e|/2.8 where the value of the electromagnetic radius module calculated for the process of interaction between a proton and a copper nucleus is equal to: | r e| = 8.9x10 -15 cm.

On the. rice. 26 An experimental curve describing the scattering of protons with an energy of 17 MeV on copper nuclei is presented. The solid line in the same figure indicates the theoretical curve obtained based on solutions to the vacuum equations. Good agreement between the curves suggests that the short-range interaction potential with the nuclear radius found from the solution of the vacuum equations r N= 10 -15 cm. Nothing was said here about gravitational interactions, since for elementary particles they are much weaker than nuclear and electromagnetic ones.

The advantage of the vacuum approach in a unified description of gravitational, electromagnetic and nuclear interactions over those currently accepted is that our approach is fundamental and does not require the introduction of nuclear potentials “by hand”.

3.4. Relationship between weak and torsional interactions.

Weak interactions usually mean processes involving one of the most mysterious elementary particles - neutrinos. Neutrinos have no mass or charge, but only spin - their own rotation. This particle does not tolerate anything other than rotation. Thus, a neutrino is one of the varieties of a dynamic torsion field in its pure form.

The simplest of the processes in which weak interactions are manifested is the decay of a neutron (the neutron is unstable and has an average lifetime of 12 minutes) according to the scheme:

n® p + + e - + v

Where p+- proton, e-- electron, v- antineutrino. Modern science believes that electron and proton interact with each other according to Coulomb's law as particles with opposite charges. They cannot form a long-living neutral particle - a neutron with dimensions of the order of 10 -13 cm, since the electron, under the influence of gravity, must instantly “fall onto the proton”. In addition, even if it were possible to assume that the neutron consists of oppositely charged particles, then during its decay electromagnetic radiation should be observed, which would lead to a violation of the spin conservation law. The fact is that the neutron, proton and electron each have a spin of +1/2 or -1/2.

Let's assume that the initial spin of the neutron was -1/2. Then the total spin of the electron, proton and photon should also be equal to -1/2. But the total spin of an electron and a proton can have values ​​-1, 0, +1, and a photon can have a spin of -1 or +1. Consequently, the spin of the electron-proton-photon system can take values ​​0, 1, 2, but not -1/2.

Solutions of the vacuum equations for particles with spin showed that for them there is a new constant r s- spin radius, which describes the torsion field of a rotating particle. This field generates torsion interactions at short distances and allows a new approach to the problem of the formation of a neutron from a proton, electron and antineutrino.

On rice. 27 qualitative graphs of the potential energy of interaction of a proton with a spin with an electron and a positron, obtained from solving vacuum equations, are presented. The graph shows that at a distance of about

r s = |r e|/3 = 1.9x10 -13 cm.

From the center of the proton there is a “torsion well” in which an electron can remain for quite a long time when it, together with a proton, forms a neutron. An electron cannot fall onto a rotating proton, since the torsional repulsive force at short distances exceeds the Coulomb force of attraction. On the other hand, the torsion addition to the Coulomb potential energy has axial symmetry and very strongly depends on the orientation of the proton spin. This orientation is given by the angle q between the direction of the proton spin and the radius vector drawn to the observation point,

Ha rice. 27 the orientation of the proton spin is chosen so that the angle q equal to zero. At angle q= 90° the torsion addition becomes zero and in a plane perpendicular to the direction of the proton spin, the electron and proton interact according to Coulomb’s law.

The existence of a torsion field near a rotating proton and a torsion well during the interaction of a proton and an electron suggests that when a neutron “breaks up” into a proton and an electron, a torsion field is emitted, which has no charge and mass and transfers only spin. This is precisely the property that antineutrinos (or neutrinos) have.

From the analysis of the potential energy depicted in rice. 27, it follows that when there is no electromagnetic interaction in it ( r e= 0) and only torsion interaction remains ( r s No. 0), then the potential energy becomes zero. This means that free torsion radiation, carrying only spin, does not interact (or interacts weakly) with ordinary matter. This, apparently, explains the observed high penetrating ability of torsion radiation - neutrinos.

Rice. 27. Potential energy of interaction of a spinning proton, obtained from the solution of vacuum equations: a) - electron with proton at | r e |/ r s, b) - the same with the positron.

When an electron is in a “torsion well” near a proton, its energy is negative. For a neutron to decay into a proton and an electron, it is necessary for the neutron to absorb positive torsion energy, i.e. neutrino according to the scheme:

v+n® p + + e -

This scheme is completely analogous to the process of ionization of an atom under the influence of external electromagnetic radiation g

g + a ® a + + e -

Where a+- ionized atom and e-- electron. The difference is that the electron in the atom is in a Coulomb well, and the electron in the neutron is held by the torsion potential.

Thus, in the theory of vacuum there is a deep connection between the torsion field and weak interactions.

3.5. The crisis in spin physics and a possible way out of it.

The modern theory of elementary particles belongs to the class of inductive ones. It is based on experimental data obtained using accelerators. Inductive theories are descriptive in nature and must be adjusted each time as new data becomes available.

About 40 years ago, experiments were begun at the University of Rochester on the scattering of spin-polarized protons on polarized targets consisting of protons. Subsequently, this entire direction in the theory of elementary particles was called spin physics.

Rice. 28. Experimental data on the torsion interaction of polarized nucleons depending on the mutual orientation of their spins. Horizontal arrows show the direction and magnitude (arrow thickness) of torsional interaction. The vertical arrow indicates the direction of the orbital momentum of the scattered particle.

The main result obtained by spin physics is that during interactions at small distances (about 10 -12 cm), the spin of particles begins to play a significant role. It was found that torsion (or spin-spin) interactions determine the magnitude and nature of the forces acting between polarized particles (see. rice. 28).

Rice. 29. Superpotential energy obtained from solving the vacuum equations. The dependence on the orientation of the target spin is shown: a) - interaction of protons and a polarized nucleus at r e/r N = -2, r N/r s= 1.5; b) - the same for neutrons at r e/r N = 0, r N/r s= 1.5. Corner q is measured from the spin of the nucleus to the radius vector drawn to the observation point.

The nature of the torsion interactions of nucleons discovered in the experiment turned out to be so complex that the amendments made to the theory made the theory meaningless. It has reached the point where theorists lack ideas to describe new experimental data. This “mental crisis” of the theory is further aggravated by the fact that the cost of an experiment in spin physics is growing as it becomes more complex and has now approached the cost of an accelerator, which has led to a material crisis. The consequence of this state of affairs was the freezing of funding for the construction of new accelerators in some countries.

There can be only one way out of the current critical situation - in the construction of a deductive theory of elementary particles. This is precisely the opportunity that the theory of physical vacuum provides us with. Solutions of its equations lead to an interaction potential - a superpotential, which includes:

r g- gravitational radius,

r e- electromagnetic radius,

r N- nuclear radius and

r s- spin radius,

responsible for gravitational ( r g), electromagnetic ( r e), nuclear ( r N) and spin-torsion ( r s) interactions.

On rice. 29 qualitative graphs of superpotential energy obtained from solving the vacuum equations are presented.

The graph shows a strong dependence of the interaction of particles on the orientation of the spins, which is observed in spin physics experiments. Of course, the final answer will be given when thorough research is carried out based on solutions to the vacuum equations.

3.6. Scalar electromagnetic field and transmission of electromagnetic energy over a single wire.

The vacuum equations, as befits the equations of the unified field theory, transform into known physical equations in various special cases. If we limit ourselves to considering weak electromagnetic fields and the movement of charges with not too high speeds, then from the vacuum equation (B.1) equations similar to Maxwell’s equations of electrodynamics will follow. In this case, weak fields are understood as such electromagnetic fields, the strength of which satisfies the inequality E, H<< 10 -16 ед. СГСЕ. Такие слабые электромагнитные поля встречаются на расстояниях порядка r >> 10 -13 cm from elementary particles, i.e. at distances where the effect of nuclear and weak interactions becomes insignificant. We can assume that in our daily life we ​​are always dealing with weak electromagnetic fields. On the other hand, the movement of particles at not too high speeds means that the energies of charged particles are not too high and, due to a lack of energy, they do not enter, for example, into nuclear reactions.

If we restrict ourselves to the case when the particle charges are constant ( e = const), then weak electromagnetic fields in vacuum theory are described by a vector potential (the same as in Maxwell’s electrodynamics), through which six independent components of the electromagnetic field are determined: three components of the electric field E and three components of the magnetic field H.

In the general case, the potential of the electromagnetic field in vacuum electrodynamics turns out to be a symmetric tensor of the second rank, which gives rise to additional components of the electromagnetic field. Exact solution of the equations of vacuum electrodynamics for charges for which e No. const, predicts the existence of a new scalar electromagnetic field of the form:

S = - de(t) / rc dt

Where r- distance from the charge to the observation point, With- speed of light, e(t)- variable charge.

In ordinary electrodynamics, such a scalar field is absent due to the fact that the potential in it is a vector. If a charged particle e moves at speed V and falls into a scalar electromagnetic field S, then a force acts on it F S:

F S = eSV = - e V

Since the movement of charges represents an electric current, this means that the scalar field and the force generated by this field should reveal themselves in experiments with currents.

The above formulas were obtained under the assumption that the charges of particles change with time and, it would seem, have no relation to real phenomena, since the charges of elementary particles are constant. However, these formulas are quite applicable to a system consisting of a large number of constant charges, when the number of these charges changes over time. Experiments of this kind were carried out by Nikola Tesla at the beginning of the 20th century. To study electrodynamic systems with variable charge, Tesla used a charged sphere (see Fig. Fig. 29 a). When the sphere was discharged to the ground, a scalar field S arose around the sphere. In addition, a current I flowed through one conductor, which did not obey Kirchhoff’s laws, since the circuit turned out to be open. At the same time, a force was applied to the conductor F S, directed along the conductor (as opposed to ordinary magnetic forces acting perpendicular to the current).

The existence of forces acting on a conductor carrying current and directed along the conductor was discovered by A.M. Ampere. Subsequently, longitudinal forces were experimentally confirmed in the experiments of many researchers, namely in the experiments of R. Sigalov, G. Nikolaev and others. In addition, in the works of G. Nikolaev, the connection between the scalar electromagnetic field and the action of longitudinal forces was first established. However, G. Nikolaev never associated a scalar field with a variable charge.

Rice. 29 a. In variable charge electrodynamics, current flows through one wire.

Single-wire transmission of electrical energy was further developed in the works of S.V. Avramenko. Instead of a charged sphere, S.V. Avramenko proposed using a Tesla transformer, in which the secondary winding at the output of the transformer has only one end. The second end is simply insulated and remains inside the transformer. If an alternating voltage with a frequency of several hundred Hertz is applied to the primary winding, then an alternating charge appears on the secondary winding, which generates a scalar field and longitudinal force F S. S.V. Avramenko places a special device on one wire coming out of the transformer - an Avramenko plug, which makes two from one wire. If you now connect a normal load in the form of a light bulb or an electric motor to two wires, the light bulb lights up, and the motor begins to rotate due to the electricity that is transmitted through one wire. A similar installation, transmitting 1 kW of power over one wire, was developed and patented at the All-Russian Research Institute for Agricultural Electrification. Work is also underway there to create a single-wire line with a capacity of 5 kW or more.

3.7. Torsion radiation in electrodynamics.

We have already noted that a neutrino is a torsion radiation, which, as follows from solving the vacuum equations, accompanies the exit of an electron from a torsion well during the decay of a neutron. In this regard, the question immediately arises: is there not torsion radiation during the accelerated movement of an electron, generated by its own spin?

The vacuum theory answers this question positively. The fact is that the field emitted by an accelerated electron is related to the third derivative of the coordinate with respect to time. Vacuum theory makes it possible to take into account the electron’s own rotation - its spin - in the classical equations of motion and show that the radiation field consists of three parts:

E rad = E e + T et + T t

First part of electron emission E e generated by the charge of the electron, i.e. has a purely electromagnetic nature. This part has been studied quite well by modern physics. Second part Tet has a mixed electro-torsional nature, since it is generated by both the electron charge and its spin. Finally, the third part of the radiation T t created only by the spin of the electron. Regarding the latter, we can say that an electron emits neutrinos during accelerated motion, but with very low energies!

Several years ago, devices were created and patented in Russia that confirmed the theoretical predictions of the vacuum theory regarding the existence of torsion radiation in electrodynamics generated by the electron spin. These devices were called torsion generators.

Rice. thirty. Schematic diagram of Akimov's torsion generator.

On rice. thirty shows a schematic diagram of Akimov's patented torsion generator. It consists of a cylindrical capacitor 3, the inner plate of which is supplied with a negative voltage, and the outer plate is supplied with a positive voltage from the source DC voltage 2. A magnet is placed inside the cylindrical capacitor, which is a source of not only a static magnetic field, but also a static torsion field. This field is generated (as well as the magnetic one) by the total spin of the electrons. In addition, pure spin (static neutrino) vacuum polarization occurs between the plates of the capacitor, created by the potential difference. To create torsion radiation of a given frequency, an alternating electromagnetic field (control signal) 1 will be applied to the capacitor plates.

Rice. 31. Akimov torsion generator.

Under the influence of an alternating electromagnetic field 1 of a given frequency, the orientation of the spins (with the same frequency) of the electrons inside the magnet and the polarized spins between the plates of the capacitor changes. The result is dynamic torsion radiation with high penetrating ability.

On rice. 31 The internal structure of the Akimov generator is presented. From the point of view of electromagnetism, the design of a torsion generator looks paradoxical, since its elemental base is built on completely different principles. For example, a torsion signal can be transmitted along a single metal wire.

Torsion generators of the type shown in rice. 31 are widely used in Russia in various experiments and even technologies, which will be discussed below.

3.8. The quantum theory that Einstein dreamed of has been found.

Modern quantum theory of matter also belongs to the inductive class. According to the Nobel laureate, creator of the theory of quarks M. Gell-Mann, quantum theory is a science that we know how to use, but do not fully understand. A. Einstein also shared a similar opinion, believing that it was incomplete. According to A. Einstein, the “perfect quantum theory” will be found on the path of improving the general theory of relativity, i.e. on the way to constructing a deductive theory. It is precisely this quantum theory that follows from the equations of the physical vacuum.

The main differences between quantum theory and classical theory are that:

a) the theory contains a new constant h - Planck’s constant;

b) there are stationary states and the quantum nature of particle motion;

c) to describe quantum phenomena, a universal physical quantity is used - a complex wave function that satisfies the Schrödinger equation and has a probabilistic interpretation;

d) there is particle-wave dualism and an optical-mechanical analogy;

e) the Heisenberg uncertainty relation is satisfied;

f) a Hilbert state space arises.

All these properties (except for the specific value of Planck's constant) appear in the theory of physical vacuum when studying the problem of matter motion in fully geometrized Einstein equations (B.1).

The solution to equations (B.1), which describes a stable spherically symmetric massive (charged or not) particle, simultaneously leads to two ideas about the distribution density of its matter:

a) as the matter density of a point particle and

b) as a field tangle formed by a complex torsion field (field of inertia).

Field-particle dualism, arising in the theory of vacuum, is completely analogous to the dualism of modern quantum theory. However, there is a difference in the physical interpretation of the wave function in vacuum theory. Firstly, it satisfies the Schrödinger equation only in a linear approximation, and with an arbitrary quantum constant (a generalized analogue of Planck’s constant). Secondly, in vacuum theory, the wave function is determined through a real physical field - the field of inertia, but, being normalized to unity, receives a probabilistic interpretation similar to the wave function of modern quantum theory.

Stationary states particles in vacuum theory are a consequence of an expanded interpretation of the principle of inertia when using locally inertial frames of reference. As noted earlier (see rice. 6), in general relativistic electrodynamics, an electron in an atom can move acceleratedly in the Coulomb field of the nucleus, but without radiation, if the reference frame associated with it is locally inertial.

Quantization stationary states in the theory of vacuum is explained by the fact that in it the particle is a purely field formation extended in space. When a field, extended object is located in a limited space, its physical characteristics, such as energy, momentum, etc., take on discrete values. If the particle is free, then the spectrum of its physical characteristics becomes continuous.

The main difficulties of modern quantum theory arise from a misunderstanding of the physical nature of the wave function and an attempt to represent an extended object as a point or as a plane wave. A point in classical field theory describes a test particle that does not have its own field. Therefore, quantum theory, which follows from the theory of vacuum, must be considered as a way to describe the motion of a particle taking into account its own field. This could not be done in the old quantum theory for the simple reason that the density of the matter of a particle and the density of the field created by it are of a different nature. There was no universal physical characteristic to uniformly describe both densities. Now it's like this physical characteristic appeared in the form of a field of inertia - a torsion field, which turns out to be truly universal, since all types of matter are subject to the phenomenon of inertia.

On rice. 32 it is shown how the inertia field determines the matter density of a particle taking into account its own field.

Rice. 32. Vacuum quantum mechanics abandons the concept of a test particle and describes the particle taking into account its own field, using the universal physical field - the field of inertia.

As for the specific value of Planck's constant, it apparently should be considered as an empirical fact characterizing the geometric dimensions of the hydrogen atom.

It turned out to be interesting that the vacuum quantum theory also allows for a probabilistic interpretation, satisfying the principle of correspondence with the old theory. The probabilistic interpretation of the motion of an extended object first appeared in physics in classical Liouville mechanics. In this mechanics, when considering the movement of a drop of liquid as a single whole, a special point of the drop is identified - its center of mass. As the shape of the drop changes, the position of the center of mass inside it also changes. If the density of the drop is variable, then the center of mass is most likely located in the region where the density of the drop is maximum. Therefore, the density of the substance of a drop turns out to be proportional to the probability density of finding the center of mass at a particular point in space inside the drop.

In quantum theory, instead of a drop of liquid, we have a field clot formed by the inertia field of the particle. Just like a drop, this field clot can change shape, which, in turn, leads to a change in the position of the center of mass of the clot inside it. Describing the movement of a field clot as a single whole through its center of mass, we inevitably come to a probabilistic description of the movement.

An extended drop can be considered as a set of point particles, each of which is characterized by three coordinates x, y, z and momentum with three components p x, p y, p z. In Liouville mechanics, the coordinates of points inside a drop form configuration space(generally speaking, infinitely dimensional). If we additionally associate impulses with each point of the configuration space of the drop, we get phase space. In Liouville mechanics, a theorem on the conservation of phase volume has been proven, which leads to an uncertainty relation of the form:

D pDx = const

Here Dx is considered as a scatter of coordinates of points inside the drop, and Dp as the spread of their corresponding impulses. Let us assume that the drop takes the shape of a line (stretches into a line), then its momentum is strictly defined, since the scatter Dp= 0. But each point of the line becomes equal, so the coordinate of the drop is not determined due to the relation Dx = Ґ , which follows from the theorem on the conservation of the phase volume of a drop.

In field theory for a field bunch consisting of a set of plane waves, the theorem on the conservation of phase volume is written as:

DpDx = p

Where Dx is the scatter of field cluster coordinates, and Dp- scatter of wave vectors of plane waves forming a field bunch. If we multiply both sides of the equation by h and enter the designation р = hk, then we get the well-known Heisenberg uncertainty relation:

DpDx = p h

This relationship is also true for a field bunch formed by a set of plane waves of the inertial field in quantum theory, which follows from the theory of physical vacuum.

3.9. Quantization in the Solar System.

The new quantum theory allows us to expand our understanding of the scope of quantum phenomena. Currently, it is believed that quantum theory is applicable only to the description of microworld phenomena. To describe such macrophenomena as the movement of planets around the Sun, the idea of ​​a planet as a test particle that does not have its own field is still used. However, a more accurate description of the motion of planets is achieved when the planet’s own field is taken into account. This is precisely the opportunity that the new quantum theory provides us with, using the inertia field as the wave function in the Schrödinger equation.

Table 3.

The simplest semiclassical consideration of the problem of the motion of planets around the Sun, taking into account their own field, leads to a formula for quantizing the average distances from the Sun to the planets (and asteroid belts) according to the formula:

r = r 0 (n + 1/2), where n = 1, 2, 3 ...

Here r 0= 0.2851 a.u. = const - new "planetary constant". Recall that the distance from the Sun to the Earth is 1 AU. = 150000000 km. IN table No. 3 a comparison is given of the theoretical calculations obtained using the above formula with the experimental results.

As can be seen from the table, matter in the Solar system forms a system of discrete levels, quite well described by a formula derived from a new idea about the nature of the wave function of quantum theory.

Teaching without thinking is harmful, and thinking without teaching is dangerous. Confucius

The fundamental branch of natural science is Physics, from Greek "nature".

One of the main works of the ancient Greek philosopher and scientist Aristotle was called “Physics”. Aristotle wrote: The science of nature studies primarily bodies and quantities, their properties and types of motion, and in addition, the beginnings of this kind of existence.

One of the tasks of physics is to identify the simplest and most general in nature, to discover such laws from which a picture of the world could be logically deduced - this is what A. Einstein believed.

The easiest- the so-called primary elements: molecules, atoms, elementary particles, fields, etc. General properties matter is considered to be motion, space and time, mass, energy, etc.

When studying, the complex is reduced to the simple, the specific to the general.

Friedrich Kekule(1829 - 1896) proposed hierarchy of natural sciences in the form of its four successive main stages: mechanics, physics, chemistry, biology.

First stage The development of physics and natural science covers the period from the time of Aristotle to the beginning of the 17th century, and is called the ancient and medieval stage.

Second phase classical physics (classical mechanics) until the end of the 19th century. associated with Galileo Galilei and Isaac Newton.

In the history of physics, the concept of atomism, according to which matter has a discontinuous, discrete structure, that is, it consists of atoms. ( Democritus, 4th century BC, - atoms and emptiness).

Third stage modern physics was discovered in 1900. Max Planck(1858-1947), who proposed a quantum approach to assessing accumulated experimental data, based on a discrete concept.

The universality of physical laws confirms the unity of nature and the Universe as a whole.

Macroworld– this is the world of physical bodies consisting of microparticles. The behavior and properties of such bodies are described by classical physics.

Microworld or the world of microscopic particles, is described primarily by quantum physics.

Megaworld- the world of stars, galaxies and the Universe, located beyond the Earth.

Types of fundamental interactions

To date, four are known types of basic fundamental interactions:

gravitational, electromagnetic, strong, weak.

1.Gravitational interaction characteristic of all material objects, lies in the mutual attraction of bodies and is determined the fundamental law of universal gravitation: between two point bodies there is an attractive force directly proportional to the product of their masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them.

Gravitational interaction in processes microworld does not play a significant role. However, in macroprocesses he plays a decisive role. For example, the movement of the planets of the solar system occurs in strict accordance with the laws of gravitational interaction.

R its radius of action, like that of electromagnetic interaction, is unlimited.

2.Electromagnetic interaction associated with electric and magnetic fields. Electromagnetic theory Maxwell connects electric and magnetic fields.

Various aggregate states of matter (solid, liquid and gaseous), the phenomenon of friction, elastic and other properties of matter are determined forces of intermolecular interaction, which is electromagnetic in nature.

3.Strong interaction is responsible for the stability of nuclei and extends only within the size of the kernel. The stronger the interaction of nucleons in a nucleus, the more stable it is, the more binding energy.

Communication energy is determined by the work that must be done to separate nucleons and remove them from each other at such distances at which the interaction becomes zero.

As the size of the nucleus increases, the binding energy decreases. Thus, the nuclei of elements at the end of the periodic table are unstable and can decay. This process is often called radioactive decay.

4.Weak interaction short-range and describes some types of nuclear processes.

The smaller the size of material systems, the more firmly their elements are connected.

Development unified theory all known fundamental interactions(theory of everything) will provide conceptual integration of modern data about nature.

In natural science there is a distinction three types of matter: matter (physical bodies, molecules, atoms, particles), field (light, radiation, gravity, radio waves) and physical vacuum.

In a microcosm, many of whose properties are of a quantum mechanical nature, matter and field can be combined (in the spirit of the concept of wave-particle duality).

System organization matter expresses the orderliness of the existence of matter.

Structural organization of matter- those specific forms in which it manifests itself (exists).

Under structure of matter usually its structure in the microcosm is understood, its existence in the form of molecules, atoms, elementary particles, etc.

Force- physical measure of interaction between bodies.

Mass of bodies is a source of force in accordance with the law of universal gravitation. Thus, the concept of mass, first introduced by Newton, is more fundamental than forces.

According to quantum field theory, particles with mass can be born from a physical vacuum at a sufficiently high energy concentration.

Energy thus acts as an even more fundamental and general concept than mass, since energy is inherent not only in matter, but also in massless fields.

Energy- universal measure various forms movement and interaction.

The law of universal gravitation formulated by Newton is force of gravitational interaction F. F = G* m1 * m2 / r2 where G is the gravitational constant.

Movement in its most general form, it is a change in the state of a physical system.

For quantitative description of movement ideas about space And time, which have undergone significant changes over a long period of development of natural science.

In his fundamental "Mathematical principles of natural philosophy" Newton wrote:

“..Time and space constitute, as it were, containers for themselves and everything that exists.”

Time expresses the order of changes in physical states

Time is an objective characteristic of any physical process or phenomenon; it is universal.

Talking about time without reference to changes in any real bodies or systems is meaningless from a physical point of view.

However, in the process of development of physics with the advent of special theory of relativity a statement arose:

Firstly, the passage of time depends on the speed of movement of the reference frame. At a sufficiently high speed, close to the speed of light, time slows down, i.e. relativistic time dilation.

Secondly, the gravitational field leads to gravitational slowing down time.

We can only talk about local time in a certain reference frame. In this regard, time is not an entity independent of matter. It flows at different speeds under different physical conditions. Time is always relative .

Space - expresses the order of coexistence of physical bodies.

The first complete theory of space - Euclid's geometry. It was created approximately 2000 years ago. Euclidian geometry operates with ideal mathematical objects that exist as if timeless, and in this sense the space in this geometry is an ideal mathematical space.

Newton introduced the concept of absolute space, which can be completely empty and exists regardless of the presence of physical bodies in it. The properties of such a space are determined by Euclidean geometry.

Until the middle of the 19th century, when non-Euclidean geometries were created, none of the natural scientists doubted the identity of the real physical and Euclidean spaces.

For description mechanical movement of a body in absolute space you need to specify something else as bodies of reference- consideration of one single body in empty space is meaningless.

Fundamental interactions are different, non-reducible types of interaction between elementary particles and bodies composed of them. Today, the existence of four fundamental interactions is reliably known: gravitational, electromagnetic, strong and weak interactions, and electromagnetic and weak interactions, generally speaking, are manifestations of a single electroweak interaction. Searches are being conducted for other types of interactions, both in microworld phenomena and on cosmic scales, but so far the existence of any other type of interaction has not been discovered.

Electromagnetic interaction is one of the four fundamental interactions. Electromagnetic interaction exists between particles that have an electrical charge. From a modern point of view, electromagnetic interaction between charged particles is not carried out directly, but only through an electromagnetic field.

From the point of view of quantum field theory, electromagnetic interaction is carried by a massless boson - a photon (a particle that can be represented as a quantum excitation of the electromagnetic field). The photon itself does not have an electric charge, which means it cannot directly interact with other photons.

Of the fundamental particles, particles with an electric charge also participate in electromagnetic interaction: quarks, electrons, muons and tau particles (from fermions), as well as charged gauge bosons.

Electromagnetic interaction differs from weak and strong interaction in its long-range nature - the force of interaction between two charges decreases only as the second power of the distance (see: Coulomb's law). According to the same law, gravitational interaction decreases with distance. The electromagnetic interaction of charged particles is much stronger than the gravitational one, and the only reason why the electromagnetic interaction does not manifest itself with great force on a cosmic scale is the electrical neutrality of matter, that is, the presence in every region of the Universe of high degree exactly equal amounts of positive and negative charges.

In a classical (non-quantum) framework, electromagnetic interaction is described by classical electrodynamics.

Brief summary of the basic formulas of classical electrodynamics

A current-carrying conductor placed in a magnetic field is acted upon by the Ampere force:

A charged particle moving in a magnetic field is acted upon by the Lorentz force:

Gravitamation (universal gravity, gravity) (from the Latin gravitas - “gravity”) is a long-range fundamental interaction to which all material bodies are subject. According to modern concepts, it is the universal interaction of matter with the space-time continuum, and, unlike other fundamental interactions, all bodies without exception, regardless of their mass and internal structure, at the same point in space and time are given the same acceleration relatively locally -inertial reference frame - Einstein's equivalence principle. Mainly, gravity has a decisive influence on matter on a cosmic scale. The term gravity is also used as the name of the branch of physics that studies gravitational interactions. The most successful modern physical theory in classical physics that describes gravity is the general theory of relativity; the quantum theory of gravitational interaction has not yet been constructed.

Gravitational interaction is one of the four fundamental interactions in our world. In the framework of classical mechanics, gravitational interaction is described by Newton's law of universal gravitation, which states that the force of gravitational attraction between two material points of mass m1 and m2, separated by a distance R, is proportional to both masses and inversely proportional to the square of the distance - that is,

Here G is the gravitational constant, equal to approximately 6.6725 *10m?/(kg*s?).

The law of universal gravitation is one of the applications of the inverse square law, which also occurs in the study of radiation, and is a direct consequence of the quadratic increase in the area of ​​the sphere with increasing radius, which leads to a quadratic decrease in the contribution of any unit area to the area of ​​the entire sphere.

The gravity field is potential. This means that you can introduce the potential energy of gravitational attraction of a pair of bodies, and this energy will not change after moving the bodies along a closed loop. The potentiality of the gravitational field entails the law of conservation of the sum of kinetic and potential energy and, when studying the motion of bodies in a gravitational field, often significantly simplifies the solution. Within the framework of Newtonian mechanics, gravitational interaction is long-range. This means that no matter how a massive body moves, at any point in space the gravitational potential depends only on the position of the body at a given moment in time.

Large space objects - planets, stars and galaxies - have enormous mass and, therefore, create significant gravitational fields.

Gravity is the weakest interaction. However, since it acts at all distances and all masses are positive, it is nevertheless a very important force in the Universe. For comparison: the total electric charge of these bodies is zero, since the substance as a whole is electrically neutral.

Also, gravity, unlike other interactions, is universal in its effect on all matter and energy. No objects have been discovered that have no gravitational interaction at all.

Due to its global nature, gravity is responsible for such large-scale effects as the structure of galaxies, black holes and the expansion of the Universe, and for elementary astronomical phenomena - the orbits of planets, and for simple attraction to the surface of the Earth and the fall of bodies.

Gravity was the first interaction described by mathematical theory. Aristotle believed that objects with different masses fall at different speeds. Only much later, Galileo Galilei experimentally determined that this is not so - if air resistance is eliminated, all bodies accelerate equally. Isaac Newton's law of universal gravitation (1687) described the general behavior of gravity well. In 1915, Albert Einstein created General theory relativity, which more accurately describes gravity in terms of the geometry of space-time.