The final stages of the “gathering” of Russian lands by Moscow were the annexation of the Yaroslavl, Rostov, Tver and Novgorod lands, as well as Western Russian lands that were part of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The fall of Yaroslavl's independence occurred in the 60s of the 15th century, and Rostov annexed in 1474.

The most difficult task was the annexation of Novgorod, where the traditions of independence remained very strong, despite the fact that in 1456, according to the Yazhelbitsky agreement, the judicial power of the Grand (Moscow) Duke was strengthened in Novgorod, and the Novgorodians were deprived of the right of independence in international affairs. Events were complicated by the fact that two political groups had formed in the city, the first of which was oriented towards Lithuania, and the second towards Moscow. In 1471, the Pro-Lithuanian “party”, led by Martha Boretskaya, the “posadnitsa” (posadnik’s widow), and her sons, entered into an agreement with the Grand Duke of Lithuania and Poland, King Casimir IV, who, while sending his governor, nevertheless promised to preserve the liberties of Novgorod and “defend” Novgorod from Moscow.

In response to this, Ivan III set out on a campaign, which also included the princes subordinate to him. On the river Sheloni in July 1471, the Novgorodians, who fought reluctantly (the archbishop's regiment did not take part in the battle at all), were defeated. Novgorod paid 15 thousand rubles, but for now remained independent, although it undertook not to enter into relations with Lithuania in the future. In subsequent years, the pro-Lithuanian “party” came to life in Novgorod, but Ivan III also strengthened the police forces. And at the end of 1477 he undertakes a new campaign. The city was surrounded by a dense ring of Moscow troops. The Grand Duke presented a harsh ultimatum to the veche authorities, which meant the liquidation of Novgorod.

In January 1478, Novgorod capitulated, the veche was cancelled, the veche bell was taken to Moscow, and Moscow governors began to rule instead of posadniks and thousands. The lands of the boyars most hostile to Ivan III (including Martha Boretskaya) were confiscated. And in 1484 - 1499. There was a mass eviction of the remaining Novgorod boyars. Their lands were given to Moscow service people.

The northern Novgorod lands also went to Moscow. Thus, the Tver lands were surrounded on almost all sides. Tver Prince Mikhail Borisovich was forced to enter into an alliance with Casemir IV. This was just what Ivan 111 was waiting for. In September 1485. Moscow troops approached Tver, Mikhail fled to Lithuania. The son of Ivan Sh, Ivan Ivanovich, became the governor of TVERSKY. The annexation of Tver basically meant the end of the process of territorial unification of Russian lands. This was fully accomplished under Vasily Sh Ivanovich (1505 - 1533), under whom Pskov (1510) and Ryazan (1521) were transferred to Moscow. “What Ivan 11 did not have time to finish, Vasily finished,” wrote the Russian historian S. F. Platonov.

Somewhat earlier, as a result of two Russian-Lithuanian wars (1487-1494 and 1500-1503), the Chernigov-Seversk land and the eastern part of the Smolensk land went to Rus', and in 1514. and Smolensk itself.

In the 15th century The once powerful Golden Horde is collapsing. In the 30s, Crimea separated from it (the dynasty of the Girey khans established itself here), Astrakhan, and the nomads of the former khan of the Golden Horde Ulug-Muhammad moved to the Middle Volga region, forming the Kazan Khanate. The successor to the Golden Horde was the Great Horde, to whose khans the Russian princes had to pay tribute.

This “tradition” was broken by Ivan III in 1476. Then, taking advantage of the unfavorable conditions for the Moscow prince (conflict with his brothers over inheritances, tension on the western borders), Khan of the Great Horde Akhmat, having gathered an army of almost 100 thousand and concluding an agreement with Lithuanian Prince Casimir, set out on a campaign.

Ivan III, being in a difficult situation, did not dare to take major military action, although his troops stood waiting on the Oka. At the beginning of October, both armies found themselves opposite each other on the banks of the Oka-Ugra tributary. Akhmat tried twice to cross a small but stormy river, and both times he was repulsed. Negotiations also did not yield results.

Casimir IV did not come to the rescue either, whose possessions were raided by Ivan III’s ally and Akhmat’s enemy, the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey. Fallen in early November 1480. the snow seemed to have buried the last hopes of the Horde. On November 11, Akhmat led his troops to the steppes, where he soon died. Thus ended the “stand on the Ugra”, which led to immeasurably greater results than battles: tributary dependence was destroyed,

Apparently, although not a major military strategist, Ivan III had the talent of a diplomat. This is what led to the situation on political map Europe, which was succinctly formulated by Karl Marx, no stranger to Russian history: “Astonished Europe, which at the beginning of the reign of Ivan III barely noticed the existence of Muscovy, squeezed between Lithuania and the Tatars, was stunned by the sudden appearance of a huge state on its eastern borders.” In 1462, Ivan III inherited a territory whose size did not exceed 430 thousand square meters. km. upon the accession of his grandson, Ivan IV, to the throne in 1533, the territory of united Russia increased sixfold, reaching 28,000 thousand square meters. km.

Politics of Ivan III (1462-1505). During his reign, the territorial core of a unified Russian state was formed, and the formation of the central state apparatus began. He annexed Yaroslavl (1463), Novgorod (1478), Tver (1485), Vyatka, Perm, etc. Under him, the Mongol-Tatar yoke was ended (Standing on the Ugra, 1480). Code of Law 1497 was drawn up, (question 18), major construction began in Moscow, the international authority of the Russian state grew, and the title of Grand Duke of All Rus' was formalized.

The Law Code was based on the rules of law that existed in Rus' in the 15th century. and are known to us from the governor’s statutory charters, the Pskov Judgment Charter.

Politics of Vasily III (1505-1533) He energetically fought for the centralization of the Russian state: under him, the last semi-independent Russian lands were annexed to Russia - Pskov (1510), Volotsky inheritance (1513), Smolensk (1514), Ryazan (1521).

The unification of Russian lands was completed under the great-grandson of Dmitry Donskoy Ivan III (gg.) and Vasily III (gg.) Ivan III annexed the entire North-East of Rus' to Moscow: in 1463 - the Yaroslavl principality, in 1474 - the Rostov principality. After several campaigns in 1478, the independence of Novgorod was finally eliminated. The unification of Russian lands was completed under the great-grandson of Dmitry Donskoy Ivan III (gg.) and Vasily III (gg.) Ivan III annexed the entire North-East of Rus' to Moscow: in 1463 - the Yaroslavl principality, in 1474 - the Rostov principality. After several campaigns in 1478, the independence of Novgorod was finally eliminated. Completion of the formation of the Russian centralized state (late 15th - early 16th centuries).

Under Ivan III, one of the most important events in Russian history took place - the Mongol-Tatar yoke was thrown off. In 1476, Rus' refused to pay tribute. Then Khan Akhmat decided to punish Rus'. He entered into an alliance with the Polish-Lithuanian king Casimir and set out on a campaign against Moscow with a large army. Under Ivan III, one of the most important events in Russian history took place - the Mongol-Tatar yoke was thrown off. In 1476, Rus' refused to pay tribute. Then Khan Akhmat decided to punish Rus'. He entered into an alliance with the Polish-Lithuanian king Casimir and set out on a campaign against Moscow with a large army.

In 1480, the troops of Ivan III and Khan Akhmat met on the banks of the Ugra River (a tributary of the Oka). Akhmat did not dare to cross to the other side. Ivan III took a wait-and-see attitude. Help for the Tatars did not come from Casimir. Both sides understood that the battle was pointless. The power of the Tatars dried up, and Rus' was already different. Khan Akhmat led his troops back to the steppe. The Mongol-Tatar yoke ended. After the overthrow of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, the unification of Russian lands continued at an accelerated pace. In 1485, the independence of the Tver principality was eliminated. During the reign of Vasily III, Pskov (1510) and the Ryazan principality (1521) were annexed. The unification of Russian lands was basically completed. The Mongol-Tatar yoke ended. After the overthrow of the Mongol-Tatar yoke, the unification of Russian lands continued at an accelerated pace. In 1485, the independence of the Tver principality was eliminated. During the reign of Vasily III, Pskov (1510) and the Ryazan principality (1521) were annexed. The unification of Russian lands was basically completed.

The specifics of the formation of a unified Russian state in the 15th - early years. XVI centuries: the state developed in the northeastern and northwestern lands of the former Kievan Rus; its southern and southwestern lands were part of Poland, Lithuania, and Hungary. Ivan III immediately put forward the task of returning all Russian lands that were previously part of Kievan Rus; the formation of the state took place in a very short time, which was due to the presence of external danger from the Golden Horde; the internal structure of the state was “raw”; the state could at any moment disintegrate into separate principalities; the creation of the state took place on a feudal basis; a feudal society began to form in Russia: serfdom, estates, etc.; in Western Europe, the formation of states took place on a capitalist basis, and bourgeois society began to form there. the state developed in the northeastern and northwestern lands of the former Kievan Rus; its southern and southwestern lands were part of Poland, Lithuania, and Hungary. Ivan III immediately put forward the task of returning all Russian lands that were previously part of Kievan Rus; the formation of the state took place in a very short time, which was due to the presence of external danger from the Golden Horde; the internal structure of the state was “raw”; the state could at any moment disintegrate into separate principalities; the creation of the state took place on a feudal basis; a feudal society began to form in Russia: serfdom, estates, etc.; in Western Europe, the formation of states took place on a capitalist basis, and bourgeois society began to form there.

The victories of Ivan III strengthened the Russian state and contributed to the growth of its international authority. Western European countries, and primarily the Roman Curia and the German Emperor, are trying to form an alliance with the new state. The ties of the Russian state with Venice, Naples, Genoa are expanding, and relations with Denmark are intensifying. Rus''s ties with the countries of the East are also strengthening. All this indicates that the Russian state is becoming the strongest and playing a significant role in international affairs. strengthened the Russian state and contributed to the growth of its international authority. Western European countries, and primarily the Roman Curia and the German Emperor, are trying to form an alliance with the new state. The ties of the Russian state with Venice, Naples, Genoa are expanding, and relations with Denmark are intensifying. Rus''s ties with the countries of the East are also strengthening. All this indicates that the Russian state is becoming the strongest and playing a significant role in international affairs.

The unification of the Russian lands and the final liberation from the Tatar yoke and the general socio-economic changes taking place in the country led to the establishment of autocracy and created the preconditions for the transformation of the great Moscow reign into an estate-representative monarchy. The unification of the Russian lands and the final liberation from the Tatar yoke and the general socio-economic changes taking place in the country led to the establishment of autocracy and created the preconditions for the transformation of the great Moscow reign into an estate-representative monarchy.

The supreme ruler of Moscow, the prince, is the supreme owner of the land with all the fullness of judicial and executive power. Boyar Duma, noble feudal lords, clergy. Boyar Duma, noble feudal lords, clergy. Metropolitan and Consecrated Cathedral - meeting of the highest clergy Palace and Treasury. The butlers were in charge of the personal lands of the Grand Duke, sorted out land disputes, and judged the population. The treasury was in charge of state finance orders. The palace order is about the Grand Duke’s own possessions, the ambassadorial order is about external relations, the rank order is about military affairs, etc. Clerks and clerks were engaged in office work. orders. The palace order is about the Grand Duke’s own possessions, the ambassadorial order is about external relations, the rank order is about military affairs, etc. Clerks and clerks were engaged in office work.

Under Ivan III, local government remained conservative. it was based on a feeding system - one of the sources of enrichment for the upper classes at the expense of the population. "Feeders", i.e. governors and volostels (governors of volosts) were supported by the local population - literally fed. Their powers were varied: rulers, judges, collectors of princely taxes. Princes, boyars, and former “free servants” of the Grand Duke had the right to receive feedings. local government remained conservative. it was based on a feeding system - one of the sources of enrichment for the upper classes at the expense of the population. "Feeders", i.e. governors and volostels (governors of volosts) were supported by the local population - literally fed. Their powers were varied: rulers, judges, collectors of princely taxes. Princes, boyars, and former “free servants” of the Grand Duke had the right to receive feedings.

Localism is an important system in which all boyar families were distributed along the steps of the hierarchical ladder, and all their appointments (military and civilian) had to correspond to their birth. An important system in which all boyar families were distributed along the steps of the hierarchical ladder, and all their appointments (military and civilian) had to correspond to their birth.

Ivan III In 1497, a new collection of laws was published - the Code of Laws. The new collection of laws established a unified procedure for judicial and administrative activities. Laws on land use, especially the Law on St. George's Day, occupied an important place in the Code of Laws. In Rus' there was an old custom: in the fall, after harvesting, peasants could move from one owner to another. By the beginning of the 16th century. this custom took on the character of a disaster: the peasants left their master before harvesting and often the fields remained unharvested. The Code of Law of Ivan III limited the right of peasants to transfer from one owner to another to two weeks a year - before and after St. George's Day (November 26). In 1497, a new collection of laws was published - the Code of Laws. The new collection of laws established a unified procedure for judicial and administrative activities. Laws on land use, especially the Law on St. George's Day, occupied an important place in the Code of Laws. In Rus' there was an old custom: in the fall, after harvesting, peasants could move from one owner to another. By the beginning of the 16th century. this custom took on the character of a disaster: the peasants left their master before harvesting and often the fields remained unharvested. The Code of Law of Ivan III limited the right of peasants to transfer from one owner to another to two weeks a year - before and after St. George's Day (November 26).

The formation of serfdom began in Rus'. Serfdom is the dependence of the peasant on the feudal lord in personal, land, property, and legal relations, based on their attachment to the land. This was still the period when they ruled in the old way, having all gathered together in harmony - conciliarly: all authoritative forces were involved in resolving the most important issues of the country - the Grand Duke himself, the Boyar Duma, the clergy. The Grand Duke was a strong and respected figure, but the attitude towards him was “simple”; in the eyes of the Russians he was only the eldest among equals. Serfdom is the dependence of the peasant on the feudal lord in personal, land, property, and legal relations, based on their attachment to the land. This was still the period when they ruled in the old way, having all gathered together in harmony - conciliarly: all authoritative forces were involved in resolving the most important issues of the country - the Grand Duke himself, the Boyar Duma, the clergy. The Grand Duke was a strong and respected figure, but the attitude towards him was “simple”; in the eyes of the Russians he was only the eldest among equals.

The reasons for the formation of an unlimited monarchy are Mongol and Byzantine influence. Mongol influence. By this time, the Mongol-Tatar yoke had lasted in Rus' for more than 200 years. Russian princes began to adopt the style of behavior of the Mongol khans, the model of the political structure of the Horde. In the Horde, the khan was an unlimited ruler. Byzantine influence. For his second marriage, Ivan III was married to the niece of the last Byzantine emperor, Sophia Paleologus.

Ivan III was the first of the Russian princes to pursue a policy of increasing the power of the Grand Duke. Before this, appanage princes and boyars were free servants. At their own request, they could serve the Moscow Grand Duke and go to serve in Lithuania and Poland. Now they began to swear allegiance to the Moscow prince and sign special oaths. From now on, the transfer of a boyar or prince to the service of another sovereign began to be considered as treason, a crime against the state. The first of the Russian princes began to pursue a policy of increasing the power of the Grand Duke. Before this, appanage princes and boyars were free servants. At their own request, they could serve the Moscow Grand Duke and go to serve in Lithuania and Poland. Now they began to swear allegiance to the Moscow prince and sign special oaths. From now on, the transfer of a boyar or prince to the service of another sovereign began to be considered as treason, a crime against the state.

Ivan III was the first to take the title "Sovereign of All Rus'". In 1497, for the first time, the unofficial coat of arms of Byzantium, the double-headed eagle, a sacred religious symbol, was adopted as the coat of arms of the Moscow State. (By this time, the double-headed eagle in Byzantium symbolized the unity of spiritual and secular power.) was the first to accept the title “Sovereign of All Rus'.” In 1497, for the first time, the unofficial coat of arms of Byzantium, the double-headed eagle, a sacred religious symbol, was adopted as the coat of arms of the Moscow State. (By this time, the double-headed eagle in Byzantium symbolized the unity of spiritual and secular power.)

Under Ivan III, signs of grand-ducal dignity were adopted: the “Monomakh cap”, which became a symbol of autocracy, precious mantles - barmas and a scepter. Under the influence of Sophia, at the court of Ivan III, a magnificent court ceremony was introduced according to the Byzantine model; signs of grand-ducal dignity were adopted: the “Monomakh’s cap”, which became a symbol of autocracy, precious mantles - barmas and a scepter. Under the influence of Sophia, a magnificent court ceremony according to the Byzantine model was introduced at the court of Ivan III

Ideology of the times of Ivan III and Vasily III. At the end of the fifteenth century. A number of important events took place in Russian statehood: the unification of Russian lands was basically completed; in 1480, the Russian lands were freed from the Mongol-Tatar yoke; Ivan III, in the Byzantine manner, began to call himself the title “Tsar”. At the end of the fifteenth century. A number of important events took place in Russian statehood: the unification of Russian lands was basically completed; in 1480, the Russian lands were freed from the Mongol-Tatar yoke; Ivan III, in the Byzantine manner, began to call himself the title “Tsar”.

The historical process in Rus' was led by the Moscow princes. According to the ancient right of inheritance, they did not have the right to the first throne in Rus'. “In truth,” the Tver princes should have owned the first throne. The Moscow princes, using a whole range of political means, “wrested” the right to all-Russian primacy from the Tver princes. it was necessary to prove to everyone by what right they owned the Russian land. In addition, Ivan III needed to establish himself among Western European monarchs. The Russian state appeared at the beginning of the 16th century. suddenly for Western Europe. Large Western European states had already taken shape, a system of relationships between them had also been formed, and the most important trade routes were already occupied. According to the ancient right of inheritance, they did not have the right to the first throne in Rus'. “In truth,” the Tver princes should have owned the first throne. The Moscow princes, using a whole range of political means, “wrested” the right to all-Russian primacy from the Tver princes. it was necessary to prove to everyone by what right they owned the Russian land. In addition, Ivan III needed to establish himself among Western European monarchs. The Russian state appeared at the beginning of the 16th century. suddenly for Western Europe. Large Western European states had already taken shape, a system of relationships between them had also been formed, and the most important trade routes were already occupied.

Ideology To survive in these conditions, the huge Moscow state needed ideas, an ideology that would reflect the dominant position of the Moscow princes in Rus', the antiquity of the state, the truth of the Orthodox faith, the importance and necessity of the existence of Muscovy among other states. Such ideas appeared at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries. To survive in these conditions, the huge Moscow state needed ideas, an ideology that would reflect the dominant position of the Moscow princes in Rus', the antiquity of the state, the truth of the Orthodox faith, the importance and necessity of the existence of Muscovy among other states. Such ideas appeared at the end of the 15th - beginning of the 16th centuries.

1. The idea of ​​succession of power of the Moscow princes from the princes of Vladimir and Kyiv. Chronicles appeared in which it was stated that the Moscow princes received power over the Russian land from their ancestors - the Vladimir and Kyiv princes. After all, the head of the Russian Church - the Metropolitan - lived first in Kyiv, then in Vladimir (city) and Moscow (from 1328). Therefore, the Russian land was owned by the Kyiv, Vladimir, and then Moscow princes. This idea also emphasized the idea that the source of grand-ducal power is the will of the Lord himself. The Grand Duke is the deputy of the Lord God on earth. The Lord God entrusted the Grand Duke with the Russian land for his administration. Therefore, the Russian sovereign bore personal responsibility before the Lord God for the way he ruled the Russian land. Since power over the Russian land was entrusted to the Grand Duke by the Lord God himself, the Orthodox sovereign should not share it with anyone. Any refusal of the power of the Orthodox sovereign was henceforth viewed as sacrilege. Chronicles appeared in which it was stated that the Moscow princes received power over the Russian land from their ancestors - the Vladimir and Kyiv princes. After all, the head of the Russian Church - the Metropolitan - lived first in Kyiv, then in Vladimir (city) and Moscow (from 1328). Therefore, the Russian land was owned by the Kyiv, Vladimir, and then Moscow princes. This idea also emphasized the idea that the source of grand-ducal power is the will of the Lord himself. The Grand Duke is the deputy of the Lord God on earth. The Lord God entrusted the Grand Duke with the Russian land for his administration. Therefore, the Russian sovereign bore personal responsibility before the Lord God for the way he ruled the Russian land. Since power over the Russian land was entrusted to the Grand Duke by the Lord God himself, the Orthodox sovereign should not share it with anyone. Any refusal of the power of the Orthodox sovereign was henceforth viewed as sacrilege.

2. The idea of ​​kinship between Russian princes and Roman emperors. At this time, “The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir” appears. The "Tale" is based on two legends. One contained a statement that the family of Russian princes was connected with the king of “the whole universe” Augustus. In Rome from 27 BC. e. Octavian ruled. He managed to unite under his rule all the territories of the inhabited world. After this, the Roman state began to be called an empire, and Octavian was given the title of Augustus, i.e. divine. The Tale said that Augustus had a younger brother named Prus. Augustus sent Prus as ruler to the banks of the Vistula and Neman (this is how Prussia arose). And Prus had a descendant, Rurik. It was this Rurik that the Novgorodians called to reign in Novgorod. (It should be noted that almost all Western European monarchs tried to connect their ancestry with the Roman emperors.) Another legend said that in the 12th century. The heir to the Roman emperors, the Byzantine Emperor Constantine Monomakh, handed over to his grandson - the Kiev prince Vladimir Monomakh - symbols of imperial power: a cross, a crown (in Rus' it began to be called Monomakh's cap), the cup of Emperor Augustus and other objects. It followed that the Russian rulers (Monomashichi) had the legal right to the title “Caesar” (in Rus', king). At this time, “The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir” appears. The "Tale" is based on two legends. One contained a statement that the family of Russian princes was connected with the king of “the whole universe” Augustus. In Rome from 27 BC. e. Octavian ruled. He managed to unite under his rule all the territories of the inhabited world. After this, the Roman state began to be called an empire, and Octavian was given the title of Augustus, i.e. divine. The Tale said that Augustus had a younger brother named Prus. Augustus sent Prus as ruler to the banks of the Vistula and Neman (this is how Prussia arose). And Prus had a descendant, Rurik. It was this Rurik that the Novgorodians called to reign in Novgorod. (It should be noted that almost all Western European monarchs tried to connect their ancestry with the Roman emperors.) Another legend said that in the 12th century. The heir to the Roman emperors, the Byzantine Emperor Constantine Monomakh, handed over to his grandson - the Kiev prince Vladimir Monomakh - symbols of imperial power: a cross, a crown (in Rus' it began to be called Monomakh's cap), the cup of Emperor Augustus and other objects. It followed that the Russian rulers (Monomashichi) had the legal right to the title “Caesar” (in Rus', king).

3. The idea of ​​Moscow as the custodian of the true Christian faith. This idea is better known as “Moscow - the third Rome”. This idea was formulated by the monk of the Pskov Eleazar Monastery Philotheus in his letters to Vasily III in the years. Monk Philotheus was sure that Moscow was called upon to play a special role in history. At first, Rome preserved the purity of the Christian faith. But the apostates muddied the pure source, and as punishment for this, in 476 Rome fell under the blows of the barbarians. Rome was replaced by Constantinople, but even there true faith retreated, agreeing to union (unification) with the Catholic Church. By the middle of the fifteenth century. The Byzantine Empire perished under the blows of the Ottoman Turks. This idea is better known as “Moscow - the third Rome”. This idea was formulated by the monk of the Pskov Eleazar Monastery Philotheus in his letters to Vasily III in the years. Monk Philotheus was sure that Moscow was called upon to play a special role in history. At first, Rome preserved the purity of the Christian faith. But the apostates muddied the pure source, and as punishment for this, in 476 Rome fell under the blows of the barbarians. Rome was replaced by Constantinople, but even there they abandoned the true faith, agreeing to a union with the Catholic Church. By the middle of the fifteenth century. The Byzantine Empire perished under the blows of the Ottoman Turks.

3. The idea of ​​Moscow as the custodian of the true Christian faith. Hoping for help from Western European powers, the Patriarch of Constantinople signed a union with the Pope in Florence in 1439. Under the terms of the union, the Orthodox recognized the supremacy of the Pope, and not the Orthodox Patriarch, and switched to Catholic dogmas during worship, but Orthodox rituals were preserved. Before this, the power of the Patriarch of Constantinople had universal significance. It extended to Byzantium, Rus', Serbia, Georgia, and Bulgaria. The conclusion of a union with the Pope meant that the Greeks abandoned the universal mission of guardians of the Orthodox tradition, which they had undertaken. Russian Orthodox Church did not recognize the union and broke off relations with the Patriarch of Constantinople. Philotheus wrote that for apostasy from Orthodoxy - the true Christian faith - ancient Constantinople was captured by the Turks. Since then, Moscow, the capital of the largest Orthodox state, has become the center of world Orthodoxy, the “third Rome”. “Watch and listen, for two Romes have fallen, and the third (Moscow) stands, but the fourth will not exist,” wrote Philotheus. Therefore, the role of Rus' in world history is to be the patroness of all Orthodox peoples. Hoping for help from Western European powers, the Patriarch of Constantinople signed a union with the Pope in Florence in 1439. Under the terms of the union, the Orthodox recognized the supremacy of the Pope, and not the Orthodox Patriarch, and switched to Catholic dogmas during worship, but Orthodox rituals were preserved. Before this, the power of the Patriarch of Constantinople had universal significance. It extended to Byzantium, Rus', Serbia, Georgia, and Bulgaria. The conclusion of a union with the Pope meant that the Greeks abandoned the universal mission of guardians of the Orthodox tradition, which they had undertaken. The Russian Orthodox Church did not recognize the union and broke off relations with the Patriarch of Constantinople. Philotheus wrote that for apostasy from Orthodoxy - the true Christian faith - ancient Constantinople was captured by the Turks. Since then, Moscow, the capital of the largest Orthodox state, has become the center of world Orthodoxy, the “third Rome”. “Watch and listen, for two Romes have fallen, and the third (Moscow) stands, but the fourth will not exist,” wrote Philotheus. Therefore, the role of Rus' in world history is to be the patroness of all Orthodox peoples.

The unification of Russian lands was completed in the second 15th century.

Ivan 3. Unification policy.

After the death of Vasily the Dark in 1462, the heir to the throne was his son Ivan, who was 22 years old at that time. This ruler is in many ways a key figure for Russian history, since he completed the unification of lands around Moscow and ended the 240-year Horde yoke.

Ivan is characterized as a powerful, intelligent and far-sighted politician, but it is also said that he could resort to intrigue and deceit.

Ivan's first task on the throne was the final unification of North-Eastern Rus'. In 1463, the Yaroslavl prince ceded his principality to Ivan, in 1472 he annexed Perm the Great, in 1474 he acquired the remaining part of the Rostov principality, and in 1485 Tver was finally annexed. In 1489, the Vyatka land became part of the Moscow principality, and in 1503 the princes of the western Russian regions from Lithuania - the Vyazemsky, Odoevsky, Vorotynsky, Chernigov and Novgorod-Seversky lands - joined the territories of Rus'. Ivan’s special merit was that he could annex Novgorod the Great.

In 1410, in the Novgorod Republic there was a reform of the posadnik administration - the oligarchic power of the boyars strengthened, and the veche system lost its former significance. After 1456, the prince in Novgorod was the highest court. Novgorod feared subordination to Moscow. For this reason, a group of townspeople led by mayor Martha Boretskaya and Dmitry Isaakovich gathered to conclude an agreement on the vassal dependence of Novgorod on Lithuania, where King Casimir ruled at that time. The intentions of the Novgorodians to transfer their church to the jurisdiction of the Itov Metropolitan Gregory were a suitable reason for Ivan to start a war. And it broke out in 1471. Casimir did not provide effective assistance to Novgorod and on the Sheloni River they were defeated by the troops of Ivan 3. The Korostyn Treaty was signed: Novgorod was limited in sovereignty, but retained its original structure. However, after this incident, Ivan began to visit there often and fix the court and administration; by the way, the leaders of the pro-Lithuanian movement were brutally executed. In the spring of 1477, an embassy allegedly arrived to the prince, which confirmed Novgorod's dependence on Ivan. However, in the city itself they rejected this idea and were outraged; calls to go to Casimir arose again. Therefore, in the fall, Ivan approached the city and negotiations began, according to which Novgorod autonomy was abolished, and in 1478 the veche bell was taken away from Novgorod. The city was now ruled by Moscow governors.

During his unification policy, Ivan was guided by several principles, the main one of which was his desire to reduce the number of appanage principalities. After all the independent principalities disappeared, Ivan began to remove the Moscow appanages; all territorial acquisitions of previous years and new acquisitions were not subject to kinship division. Thus, Ivan pursued a policy of preventing feudal war.

Ivan 3. Liberation from the Tatar yoke.

The creation of a unified state was impossible without liberation from the Mongol-Tatar yoke. However, in order to do this, a broad mobilization of resources and military power was required, as well as increased foreign policy. By that time, the Golden Horde was already a fragment of a once huge empire - parts of the empire were divided into the Kazan, Siberian, Crimean and Astrakhan khanates.

By the end of the 1470s, the growing power of the Russian state was alarming the Horde. For this reason, the Lithuanian prince Kaimir and the Khan of the Horde Akhmet entered into an alliance against Moscow. In response to this, Ivan 3 entered into an alliance with the enemy of the Horde - the Crimean Khan Mengli-Girey. Akhmet wanted to restore the power of the Golden Horde, so he prepared for the campaign extremely carefully.

Ivan himself at that moment had problems with his brothers. They were outraged that, contrary to tradition, Ivan did not distribute the newly conquered lands as inheritance to his relatives. The brothers with their troops stood in the city of Velikiye Luki, and this allowed them, if necessary, to seek support even from Casimir, Ivan’s worst enemy. At the same time, the Golden Horde Khan was going to attack, and in this situation, Ivan had to make concessions to the brothers: the confessor Vassian was sent to them, who conveyed that Ivan was giving Aleksin and Kaluga to the brothers. Thus, the brothers' troops stood together with Ivan's troops on the Ugra.

In the fall, Akhmet approached the Ugra River, a tributary of the Oka, in order to unite with the troops of Kzimir and cross the river. The prince's regiments came out earlier and prevented the crossing. This is how the “standing” on the river began. Ivan's ally Mengli-Girey defeated Casimir's troops, so he was unable to help his ally. Ivan 3 hesitated, many did not support him and said that it was necessary to give a general battle and completely defeat the Tatars. One way or another, the khan stood on the Ugra for several weeks, but soon, either because of the cold weather, or because of the news that the Siberian Khanate had attacked the capital of the Horde, Sarai, he turned back and left, ravaging the Lithuanian possessions along the way.

The Russian state was freed from the 240-year yoke of the Tatars. The Horde itself suffered its collapse in 1502, when Mengli-Girey inflicted such a defeat on it that it was never revived.

Vasily 3. Unification policy.

After the death of Ivan 3 in 1505, he was succeeded by his son Vasily 3. He continued the fight for the abolition of the appanage system and behaved as befits a sovereign. Since only a few principalities and lands remained unannexed by the death of Ivan 3, his son finally completed the unification.

Taking advantage of the attack of the Crimean Tatars on Lithuania, in 1510 he captured Pskov, which was under Lithuanian influence. The veche system was abolished, and Moscow governors began to govern the city. In 1514 Smolensk was annexed, and in 1521 Ryazan land became part of the Russian state.

Ivan 3 and Vasily 3. Domestic policy.

The unification of lands around Moscow led to the formation of a unified system of government. After the final annexation of all lands and liberation from the Horde yoke, Ivan 3 appropriated to himself the title of “Sovereign of All Rus', Grand Duke ... of the lands.” The coat of arms of the state appeared - a double-headed eagle and the walls of the brick Kremlin were erected.

There was a process of formation of the sovereign's court, within the boundaries of which the class determination of the titled and untitled nobility took place. In the annexed lands, the princes became boyars of the Moscow sovereign (the process of becoming a prince), their former principalities began to be called counties and were governed by Moscow governors. The governors were called boyars-feeders, since for their service they received food - part of the tax, the amount of which was determined by the previous payment for service in the troops. The procedure for appointing a position was called localism - the right to occupy a position depended on the position of your ancestors. Territorial-district service corporations arose, which slowed down the consolidation of the ruling class.

The state administrative apparatus began to take shape. The Boyar Duma was created as a legal advisory body under the monarch. It consisted of 5-12 boyars and no more than 12 okolnichy (boyars\okolnichy - ranks). In addition, princes from the annexed lands, who recognized the supremacy of Moscow, also sat in the Duma. There were two government departments - the Palace and the Treasury. The palace controlled the lands of the Grand Duke, while the Treasury managed the state archives, the press, and finances. These departments were managed by clerks - people who specialized in permanent work in government bodies. This is the very, very beginning of the order system.

The basis of the economy remained the extensive way of farming and agriculture. There were various types of settlements, where the main figure was the farmer (peasant), who had broad legal capacity. (More about this and the Law Code below).

With such a large amount of land in the hands of the authorities, the local system became widespread. The main task of the upper class is now service to the sovereign, for which they are given an allotment.

In 1497, the Code of Laws was created - a new set of laws of a single state, which contained 68 articles. He unified judicial and procedural rules. However, the most important was Article 57, which limited the right of peasants to move from one feudal lord to another and gave permission to do this only at a set time - before and after the week before St. George's Day (November 26). When leaving, the peasant paid the feudal lord a fee for the elderly - for the years he lived in the old place. This step was one of the most important on the path to serfdom.

Relations with the church - the emergence of heresies - Strigolniks, Judaizers, money-grubbers and non-money-grubbers. Consolidation of a magnificent ceremony in the sovereign's palace.

Under Ivan III, the “Moscow-third Kyiv” theory was formed. The “Moscow-Third Rome” theory was formed after his death.

The political ideology of the Russian state of the 14th-15th centuries was expressed by D.S. Likhachev in his theory “Moscow-the third Kyiv”. According to his theory, Moscow laid claim to the political legacy of Kyiv and then Vladimir. In order to show the continuity of Moscow, it is worth turning to “The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir”.

“The Tale of the Princes of Vladimir” is a literary and journalistic monument of the 16th century, which was used in the political struggle to strengthen the authority of the grand duke and then the tsarist power. This “Tale” is based on the legend about the origin of the Russian great princes from the Roman Emperor Augustus through the legendary Prus, who, on the one hand, was related to Augustus, and on the other hand, was possibly a relative of Rurik. (put away, perhaps this is a legend, there is no truth at all).

In 51 BC. After the capture of Egypt, Augustus gave the provinces to his relatives to administer. He sent Prus, one of his relatives, “to the banks of the Vistula River in the city of Malbork, and Torun, and Chwoini, and Gdansk, and to many other cities along the river called the Neman and flowing into the sea.” Four generations of Prus's relatives lived there, which is why the land was called Prussian.

Prince Vladimir was a fourth generation relative of Rurik; he converted to Christianity (in 988). His great-grandson, Vladimir Vsevolodovich Monomakh, became a prince in Kyiv and, having gathered an army, went to Thrace, the region of Constantinople, and conquered it and returned with rich booty.

The second legend included in this “Tale” tells of the acquisition by Vladimir Monomakh of royal regalia from the Byzantine Emperor Constantine Monomakh, who confirmed the formation of Russian princes from God.

The time of appearance of these legends has not been established, and there is no evidence of their existence before the beginning of the 16th century. It is also important that the legends do not mention Sophia Palaeologus, the niece of the last emperor of Byzantium, although the legend itself dates back to the 16th century. This may mean that Sophia is not an important political figure in the affairs of the Moscow state. Thus, we can conclude that Moscow was the political heir of Kyiv and Vladimir, which could have been used to form the political ideology of the Moscow state at the end of the 15th and beginning of the 16th centuries.

Thus, we see the existence of two parallel trends, thanks to which the Moscow state could lay claim to being politically active and important role in international relations. On the one hand, these are dynastic ties with the Byzantine emperors, whose authority was recognized throughout Europe, on the other hand, the justification for succession to the Kiev princes, who were revered by both Russian princes and many European rulers.

Civil war of the second quarter of the 15th century.

The feuds, called the feudal war of the second quarter of the 15th century, began after the death of Vasily I. By the end of the 14th century. In the Moscow principality, several appanage estates were formed, belonging to the sons of Dmitry Donskoy. The largest of them were Galitskoye and Zvenigorodskoye, which were received by the youngest son of Dmitry Donskoy, Yuri. After the death of the Grand Duke, Yuri, as the eldest in the princely family, began the struggle for the Grand Duke's throne with his nephew, Vasily II (1425-1462). After the death of Yuri, the fight was continued by his sons - Vasily Kosoy and Dmitry Shemyaka. The fight followed all the “rules of the Middle Ages”, i.e. Blinding, poisoning, deception, and conspiracies were used. The feudal war ended with the victory of the forces of centralization. By the end of the reign of Vasily II, the possessions of the Moscow principality increased 30 times compared to the beginning of the 14th century. The Moscow Principality included Murom (1343), Nizhny Novgorod (1393) and a number of lands on the outskirts of Rus'.

Completion of the process of unification of Russian lands under Ivan III

The completion of the process of unifying the Russian lands around Moscow into a centralized state occurred during the reign of Ivan III (1462-1505) and Vasily III (1505-1533). Ivan III, after appropriating Tver, received the honorary title “By the grace of God, Sovereign of All Russia, Grand Duke of Vladimir and Moscow , Novgorod and Pskov, and Tver, and Yugorsk, and Perm, and Bulgarian, and other lands." The princes in the annexed lands became boyars of the Moscow sovereign. These principalities were now called districts and were governed by governors from Moscow. A centralized control apparatus began to take shape.

That. The process of unification of Rus' itself dragged on for more than two hundred years, going through three main stages in its development. At the first stage (the first half of the 14th century), the main centers of attraction were identified, which became Tver and Moscow. If Tver by the end of the 13th century. was a dynamically developing principality, then Moscow only by the middle of the 14th century. Through the efforts of the Moscow princes and, above all, Ivan I (Kalita), with the help of, so to speak, “super-loyalty” to the Horde, she managed to gain additional advantages in the competition for primacy in Rus'. One of the most important among them was the transfer of the residence of the Russian metropolitan to Moscow, which turned it into the church center of Rus'.

All this led to the fact that the main content of the second stage was the stubborn struggle between Moscow and Tver, in which victory remained with the first. If at the first stage the success of Moscow was largely due to the support of the Horde, then at the second, on the contrary, it was the entry of Moscow Prince Dmitry into open military confrontation with the Tatars that provided him with widespread social and political support and, ultimately, victory in the dispute for leadership. The colossal defeat inflicted on the Tatars in the Battle of Kulikovo (1380) secured Moscow’s status as the center of the national liberation struggle to liberate Rus' from Horde dependence. In fact, this is what led to the final relocation of the unification center to Moscow.

The success of Dmitry Donskoy predetermined the foundations of the policy of subsequent Moscow princes at the third stage (XV century), which can be characterized as the gathering of Russian lands by Moscow as a sole leader with no equal opponents. At first glance, this contradicts the outbreak that flared up in the second quarter of the 15th century. “feudal war”, however, if we look deeper into the origins of this conflict, we will find that it is, although large, but still a banal dynastic conflict, in which the question of maintaining or eliminating appanage orders in Rus' was not decided, but only about which branch of the Moscow family will lead the unification process. Therefore, it is not surprising that after the end of this conflict, the progress of unification accelerated noticeably, especially after the annexation of Novgorod under Ivan III in the 70s. XV century Under Ivan III, it was possible to solve another important task - to finally destroy the Horde’s claims to collect tribute from Rus'. The famous “stand” on the Ugra River (1480) marked the final transition from a defensive to an offensive policy towards the Horde.

Russian Moscow State Prince

Cautious and prudent by nature, he avoided overly bold actions in politics, achieving major goals not immediately, but in several successive steps. This tactic was most clearly manifested during the annexation of Novgorod and Tver to Moscow. Novgorod, which had become closely dependent on Moscow under the Yazhelbitsky Treaty of 1456 concluded under the father of Ivan III, tried to regain its former independence. Among the Novgorod merchants, a strong party of friends of Lithuania was formed, led by the influential Boretsky family. In 1470, this party invited the Orthodox Lithuanian magnate Mikhail Olelkovich to reign in Novgorod. Soon the Novgorodians concluded an agreement with the King of Poland and the Grand Duke of Lithuania Casimir on the transfer under his authority - instead of Moscow.

Having learned about this, Ivan III moved towards Novgorod with a large army. The hopes of the Novgorodians for Casimir's help were not justified. July 14, 1471 Moscow governor Daniil Kholmsky defeated the Novgorod militia on the Sheloni River. The Muscovites defeated another enemy army on the Dvina. Novgorod was forced to break the alliance with Lithuania and promise not to renew it in the future, pay Ivan III a large “payback” (15 and a half thousand rubles) and cede some regions to him. Even under the Yazhelbitsky Treaty of 1456, the court of the Moscow prince was recognized as the supreme authority for all Novgorod litigation. Taking advantage of this, Ivan III came to Novgorod in 1475 and tried court cases here. Then complaints from Novgorod residents began to be accepted in Moscow.

Clashes between the Moscow and Lithuanian parties continued in Novgorod. The first was supported mainly by the common people, and the second by the merchant nobility. Seeing that the situation remained turbulent, Ivan III secretly prepared to completely destroy the autonomy of Novgorod. In 1477, Novgorod ambassadors who arrived in Moscow (apparently supporters of the Moscow party) called Ivan III not “Mr.,” as usual, but “Sovereign.” Ivan saw in this a request to accept the possessions of Novgorod under full Moscow authority. The Novgorod government began to claim that it did not give its ambassadors the authority to ask for this. Ivan III responded by accusing the Novgorodians of causing dishonor. In October 1477, the Grand Duke again opened a campaign against Novgorod and put it under siege. The inhabitants did not have the strength to defend themselves; in addition, a significant part of them stood for Moscow. On January 15, 1478, the Novgorodians swore allegiance to Ivan III, agreeing to no longer gather for their violent veche and to transfer the powers of the Novgorod government to the grand ducal governors. The leaders of the Lithuanian party were captured and sent to Moscow prisons.

In 1479, supporters of the Boretskys who remained free, at the instigation of King Casimir, tried to raise an uprising in Novgorod. But it was suppressed, its leaders were executed, and the Novgorod Archbishop Theophilus was deposed. Ivan III evicted more than 1,000 wealthy families from Novgorod to other places, replacing them with Muscovites. Similar evictions were then repeated more than once, especially widely - in 1488, when 7,000 wealthy citizens were transferred from Novgorod. In 1489, Ivan III destroyed the autonomy of Vyatka. Of the veche cities, only Pskov has so far retained its independence.

Marfa Posadnitsa (Boretskaya). Destruction of the Novgorod veche. Artist K. Lebedev, 1889)

Completion of the unification of Russian lands under Ivan III - briefly

The direct possessions of Moscow under Ivan III also included the appanages of most neighboring princes. In 1463, the Yaroslavl princes voluntarily agreed to this, and in 1474, the Rostov princes. In exchange for the loss of specific independence, the rulers who lost it were enrolled in the Moscow boyars. Tverskoye remained the largest of the principalities neighboring Moscow. In 1484, its ruler, Mikhail Borisovich, following the example of Novgorod, entered into an alliance with Casimir of Lithuania and married his granddaughter. Ivan III opened the war against Tver. Having won it, he was initially content with Mikhail Borisovich’s agreement to break the alliance with Casimir. But the Tver prince soon again established ties with Lithuania, and in the fall of 1485, after a short siege of Tver, Ivan III finally deposed Michael and annexed his inheritance to the Moscow possessions. In the same year, Vereya passed to Moscow, according to the will of a local prince.

Within the Moscow principality itself there were also appanages of the brothers of Ivan III. When one of them, the childless Yuri Dmitrovsky, died in 1472, Ivan appropriated the lands remaining after him entirely, without sharing, contrary to custom, with other brothers. The Grand Duke did not give his relatives anything from the regions of conquered Novgorod. Ivan's disgruntled brothers, princes Boris Volotsky and Andrei Uglitsky (Andrei Bolshoi), tried to support the Novgorod uprising of 1479, sought help from Lithuania, but during the Tatar invasion of 1480 they made peace with their brother. However, mutual suspicion has far from disappeared. In 1491, Ivan III arrested Andrei Uglitsky for refusing to participate in a campaign against the Tatars. Three years later, Andrei died in captivity, and his inheritance was annexed to Moscow. By the end of the reign of Ivan III, the new rule of undivided inheritance of escheated estates by one Grand Duke was firmly established.

Unification of North-Eastern Rus' by Moscow 1300-1462

Wars of Ivan III with Lithuania

Many princes of the eastern border of the Grand Duchy of Lithuania have long gravitated towards Moscow. At the beginning of the reign of Ivan III, the princes of Vorotyn, Belsky and some others switched from Lithuanian service to Moscow. The increase in the number of such transitions led to the Russian-Lithuanian war of 1487-1494 (according to another dating - 1492-1494). As a result, most of the Moscow state became part of the Verkhovsky principalities(with the cities of Belev, Odoev, Kozelsk, Novosil, Vyazma). At the end of the war, Grand Duke Alexander of Lithuania married Ivan III's daughter, Helena, in an attempt to establish not only peaceful, but also allied relations between Moscow and Lithuania. But this marriage did not give the desired result. In 1499, a new Russian-Lithuanian war broke out, marked by a major victory for the troops of Ivan III on the Vedrosha River. According to the peace treaty that ended this war, 1503 Muscovites received Seversky principalities with the cities of Chernigov, Starodub, Novgorod-Seversky and Putivl.

The fall of the Tatar yoke - briefly

Under Ivan III, Muscovite Rus' was finally freed from the Tatar yoke. Already from the middle of the 15th century, Moscow sent tribute to the disintegrated Golden Horde only from time to time and in small amounts. During the first war of Ivan III with Novgorod, Khan of the Golden Horde Akhmat, at the instigation of Casimir of Poland, set out (1472) on a campaign against Moscow, but took only Aleksin and retreated from the Oka, behind which a powerful Moscow army had gathered. In 1480, Akhmat again went to Rus'. The governors of Ivan III met the Tatars on the Ugra River. All autumn, two hostile armies stood on its different banks, not daring to attack each other. With the onset of cold weather in November, Akhmat retreated, and attempts to again impose tribute on Moscow by the Golden Horde ceased.

Even before this, Ivan III himself launched an offensive against the fragments of the Golden Horde. At the end of 1467-1469, Russian armies made several campaigns against Kazan and forced the local khan Ibrahim to recognize himself as a Moscow henchman. After the death of Ibrahim, the Moscow army forcibly installed one of his sons, Muhammad-Amen (1487), in Kazan as a ruler dependent on Moscow. In 1496, Mohammed-Amen was overthrown by the Kazan people, but they soon recognized the authority of Tsarevich Abdyl-Letif, appointed by Ivan III, and then (1502) again Mohammed-Amen. Although shortly before the death of Ivan III, Amen broke away from Moscow (1505), killed Russian merchants and attacked Nizhny Novgorod, Kazan’s dependence on Rus' was soon restored by the new Grand Duke Vasily III. Khan of the Crimean Tatars Mengli-Girey was an ally of Ivan III against the Golden Horde (whose possessions were then limited to the Lower Volga region) and Lithuania. With the assistance of Mengli-Girey, Moscow began sending embassies to Turkey.

Strengthening the grand ducal power under Ivan III - briefly

The Byzantine princess instilled in Ivan III higher ideas about his power. Moscow adopted the Byzantine coat of arms (the double-headed eagle) and many of the ceremonial forms of Byzantine imperial ceremonial. The Grand Duke began to magnify himself more than before before the boyars around him. They began to show hostility towards Sophia Paleologue. From Maria Tverskaya, Ivan had a son, Ivan the Young, who died in 1490. Following the death of Ivan the Young, the question arose about who would inherit the Moscow throne: the son Vasily born by Sophia from the Grand Duke or the son Dmitry left by Ivan the Young. Two parties emerged at court: the majority of noble boyars stood for Dmitry’s rights, and the less influential courtiers and officials stood for Vasily.

This conflict was combined with strife in the church, where the free-thinking heresy of the Judaizers then emerged. Dmitry's mother, the Moldavian princess Elena, supported the heretics, and Sophia Paleologus and her supporters were hostile to them. In December 1497, Ivan III arrested his son Vasily, suspecting his supporters of an attempt on Dmitry's life. On February 4, 1498, Dmitry was married for the first time in Russia not for a great reign, but for a kingdom- as heir to the throne. But the very next year, Dmitry’s party, led by the boyars Patrikeevs and Ryapolovskys, was defeated. Not the least reason for this was her connection with the Judaizers. On April 14, 1502, Ivan III declared Vasily his heir.

Assumption Cathedral of the Moscow Kremlin. Built under Ivan III

Under Ivan III, the first remarkable Moscow legal monument was compiled - Sudebnik 1497, which, however, no longer dealt with legislative norms, but with the rules of legal proceedings. After his marriage to Sophia, Ivan made great efforts to decorate Moscow, which had now become the main city of the entire Orthodox world. Skilled builders were summoned from Italy to Russia ( Aristotle Fioravanti etc.), who erected in Moscow a new Assumption Cathedral that has survived to this day, the Chamber of Facets, and new walls of the Kremlin.