Lecture notes. Taganrog: TTI SFU, 2007
Classification of accounting accounts
A refined classification of accounting accounts by purpose and structure of indicators is presented (based on economic content) in the diagram (Fig. 1).
Rice. 1. Classification of accounting accounts by purpose and structure of indicators
At the first stage of grouping, as shown in Fig. 1, accounting accounts, depending on their purpose, are divided into four groups: main, regulatory, operational and financial-resulting accounts.
The main accounts accumulate information characterizing the movement of property and capital of the enterprise and the state of settlements with its debtors and creditors. These accounts are the basis for the formation of balance sheet items.
Regulatory accounts clarify the cost characteristics of accounting objects reflected in the main accounts. They do not have independent meaning, but only complement them. With their help, the current accounting valuation of assets reflected in the main accounts is adjusted to the amount of their book value (valuation).
Operational accounts are intended to reflect expenses associated with the implementation of business transactions in the process of procurement, production and sale of products, goods, works and services.
Financial-resulting accounts are intended to determine the results of a comparison of income and the costs associated with their receipt of an enterprise and to identify its profit or loss.
All of these accounts reflect, by double entry, the property belonging to the enterprise, the sources of its formation and all its economic activities as a legal entity.
A simple record is kept on off-balance sheet accounts intended to summarize information about the availability and movement of inventory items temporarily in the use or disposal of the enterprise (rent, custody, processing), as well as to control individual business transactions.
At the second stage of grouping, accounts are divided based on the generality of construction, i.e. the structure of indicators on accounts characterizing economically homogeneous accounting objects. At this stage of grouping, the main accounts are divided into inventory, stock and settlement accounts.
Inventory accounts are those that record the material assets and funds of an enterprise, including securities. At the analytical level, these accounting objects can be recalculated (inventoried) in physical terms. This is where their name comes from - “inventory”. The value expression of these accounting objects (except for cash) is determined through natural indicators and the current accounting estimate (price).
Intangible assets present among inventory items as intangible items do not fully correspond to the characteristics of inventory items. If these accounting items are used in the business for less than 12 months, then the costs of their acquisition are reflected in account 97 "Expenses future periods", included in the group of budgetary distribution accounts. The debit of inventory accounts reflects the receipt (arrival) of accounting objects, and the credit reflects their release (expense). Balances on these accounts, reflecting the availability of accounting objects on the corresponding date, must always be of a debit nature The credit balance obtained as a result of regrading on separate analytical accounts is reflected in the accounting registers as a debit “red balance.” Inventory accounts are active.
Stock accounts are those that take into account the sources of formation of the enterprise's own funds - authorized, reserve and additional capital, retained earnings and targeted financing.
The credit of stock accounts reflects the formation (increase) of capital at the expense of relevant sources, and the debit reflects the use (decrease) of capital as established by law. Russian Federation goals.
At the same time, the movement of the authorized capital cannot be reflected in accounting without prior registration or re-registration of the constituent documents of the legal entity.
Unlike other components of equity capital, analytical accounting of the authorized capital is carried out in the context of its founders (shareholders).
Balances in stock accounts, reflecting the amount of capital as of the relevant date, must always be of a credit nature. Fund accounts are passive.
Settlement accounts are intended to summarize information about the status of settlements with debtors and creditors of the enterprise. To correctly reflect the financial condition of an enterprise in the reporting, offsetting between the items of its assets and liabilities is not allowed, and information about the state of receivables and payables must be formed in accounting in an expanded form, separating the debt of debtors and creditors.
Accounts for reflecting settlements with debtors are opposite in structure to accounts that record settlements with creditors. This can be illustrated by the following diagrams:
On accounts receivable 19 “Value added tax on purchased assets”, 45 “Goods shipped”, 62 “Settlements with buyers and customers”, 71 “Settlements with accountable persons” and 73 “Settlements with personnel for other operations” education or an increase in debt is reflected in debit.
In the Chart of Accounts of 2000, accounts 19 and 45 in section VI “Settlements” are absent, but their belonging to the structural group “Settlements Accounts” is undoubted. The debit of account 19 reflects the amounts that are subject to offset in settlements with the budget for VAT (as the amount of a kind of loan issued to the budget), and this account corresponds with settlement account 68 “Calculations for taxes and fees”. The credit of active account 19 in correspondence with passive account 68 reflects the repayment of debt to the budget.
Account 45 “Goods shipped” has always been the antipode of settlement account 62 “Settlements with buyers and customers”. Only one of them reflected settlements with customers for shipped products. And according to the Chart of Accounts 2000, the debit of account 45 reflects products and goods shipped to the buyer or transferred for sale to the commission agent and, according to accounting rules, not included in the sales volume.
Responsibility for the safety of products and goods before they are transferred to the buyer lies with the carrier or commission agent with whom the enterprise enters into settlement relations.
The formation or increase of debt to creditors is reflected in the credit of the following accounts for settlements with creditors: 60 "Settlements with suppliers and contractors", 66 "Settlements for short-term loans and borrowings", 67 "Settlements for long-term loans and borrowings", 68 "Settlements for taxes and fees", 69 "Calculations for social insurance and security" and 70 "Settlements with personnel for wages".
Repayment or offset (reduction) of accounts receivable is reflected in the credit of accounts payable, and accounts payable - in the debit of accounts payable.
If the balance of accounts receivable is reflected, as a rule, as a debit to the corresponding accounts payable, then the balance of accounts payable, on the contrary, is reflected as a credit to the corresponding accounts payable. Therefore, accounts with debtors are active, and accounts with creditors are passive.
Such synthetic settlement accounts as 75 “Settlements with founders”, 76 “Settlements with various debtors and creditors” and 79 “Intra-business settlements” are active-passive.
To account 75, in accordance with the 2000 Chart of Accounts, two sub-accounts are opened: active sub-account 1 “Settlements for contributions to the authorized (share) capital” for settlements with debtors - founders for contributions to the authorized capital and passive sub-account 2 “Settlements for the payment of income” for settlements with creditors - founders for payment of accrued founder's income (dividends).
At least four subaccounts are opened for account 76 in accordance with the Chart of Accounts:
active - passive subaccount 1 “Settlements for property and personal insurance” for settlements of the policyholder for property and personal insurance;
active subaccount 2 “Settlements on claims” for settlements with debtors on claims brought against them;
active subaccount 3 “Settlements for due dividends and other income” for settlements with debtors for payments due from them for dividends and other income;
passive subaccount 4 “Settlements on deposited amounts” for settlements with creditors on deposited amounts.
In order to separate settlements with other groups of debtors and creditors, additional active and passive subaccounts are opened to account 76.
On account 79, in accordance with the Chart of Accounts 2000, three active-passive sub-accounts are opened for settlements with debtors and creditors with whom intra-business relations have been established: 1 “Settlements for allocated property”; 2 "Calculations for current operations"; 3 "Settlements under a property trust management agreement."
Active and passive subaccounts to synthetic active-passive settlement accounts 75 and 76 have the same structure as all active and passive synthetic settlement accounts. The expanded balance on active-passive settlement accounts 75 and 76 is ensured by the presence of the indicated sub-accounts, which summarize the total indicators that are homogeneous in their structure.
The expanded balance for active-passive subaccount 76-1 and other separate groups of other debtors and creditors, as well as for active-passive subaccounts 79-1, 79-2 and 79-3 is ensured by preliminary grouping of analytical accounts into these subaccounts by nature ( debit or credit) of their balances.
Regulatory accounts are divided according to the method of regulating the valuation of objects reflected in the main accounts. If the regulation of the current accounting valuation of accounting objects to the amount of their book value is carried out by adding the amount of the regulatory account to the accounting price of the main account object, then such regulatory accounts are called additional. They are divided into active and passive depending on the content of the regulated main account. For an active main account, the additional account will be active with a debit balance. For a passive main account, the additional account will be passive with the loan balance. There are no additional accounts in the 2000 Chart of Accounts.
If the regulation of the current accounting valuation of the objects of accounting of the main accounts to the amount of their book value is carried out by subtracting the amount of the regulation of the regulating account from the accounting price of the object of the main account, then such regulating accounts are called contra accounts.
Contrary accounts in relation to active main accounts are called contractual with the balance of the loan regulation. They are classified as passive accounts because the asset is opposed to the liability.
The provision accounts in the 2000 Chart of Accounts act as regulatory contractual accounts. These include accounts 14 “Reserves for impairment of the value of material assets”, 59 “Reserves for impairment of investments in securities” and 63 “Reserves for doubtful debts”.
Recognition in the balance sheet at the end of the reporting period (most often a year) of a lower (market) valuation of assets in the form of tangible assets, securities and receivables without changing their current valuation in accounting insures the enterprise from the need to recognize losses of the current year in a future reporting period, and also allows, using the amount of regulation in the form of credit balances on the accounts of valuation reserves, to move to a lower book value of the specified assets at the end of the reporting year. Therefore, at the end of the reporting period (year) for the amount of the decrease in the value of assets (doubtful debt), estimated reserves (regulators) are created by writing a credit entry to accounts 14, 59 and 63 in correspondence with account 91 “Other income and expenses”, and at the beginning of the next reporting year A reverse, recovery entry is made on these accounts.
Most of the regulating accounts of the Chart of Accounts 2000 are contractual, i.e. passive accounts. They are paired with the following active accounts: 02 “Depreciation of fixed assets” - to account 01 “Fixed assets”; 05 "Amortization of intangible assets" - to account 04 "Intangible assets"; 14 “Reserves for reducing the value of material assets” - to account 10 “Materials” and other accounts; 42 “Trade margin” - to account 41 “Goods”; 59 “Reserves for impairment of investments in securities” - to account 58 “Financial investments”; 63 “Provisions for doubtful debts” - to account 62 “Settlements with buyers and customers”. Since regulatory accounts do not have independent significance, they are not presented directly in the balance sheet.
Counter-accounts in relation to passive main accounts are called counter-passive with a regulatory balance in debit, i.e. they are classified as active accounts. Counter-liability accounts are also not presented in the 2000 Chart of Accounts.
Regulatory accounts can also be counter-additional, such as account 16 “Deviation in the cost of material assets.” The regulation of this account, depending on its content, is either added (like an additional active account) to the current assessment of the object of the main account 10 (overexpenditure compared to the planned current assessment of materials), or, like a contractual account, it is subtracted from it (savings compared to planned ongoing assessment of materials). Deviations in the form of overexpenditure or savings from the credit of this account in the appropriate proportion are written off as materials are released from the warehouse.
Of special character is the counter-additional account 40 “Output of products (works, services)”, which is used when used in accounting for standard costs as a current assessment of finished products.
First, from the credit of account 40 “Output of products (works, services)”, the finished products credited to the warehouse at standard cost are written off to the debit of account 43 “Finished Products”, and at the end of the reporting period, after determining its actual cost, it is written off to the debit of account 40 “Output products (works, services)" from the credit of account 20 "Main production".
The difference between actual and standard costs formed in regulatory account 40 “Output of products (works, services)” is written off by an additional entry as an overexpenditure or a reversal entry as savings to account 90 “Sales.” The absence of a remainder characterizes this account both as contrarily - additional, and as collectively - distributive at the same time.
Operating accounts are divided depending on their structure into three groups: collective - distribution, budget - distribution and calculation.
A distinctive feature of collective distribution accounts is the absence of a balance on them. Therefore, they are not presented in the balance sheet. These accounts perform the function of monitoring compliance with budgeted allocations for overhead costs such as general production or general business expenses. Therefore, they are also called control and distribution accounts. Costs are collected for them in the context of estimated debit items. The expenses collected on debit for the reporting period are written off from the credit of these accounts for the purpose of their indirect distribution among calculation objects.
The principle of matching income and expenses and their temporal reference to the corresponding reporting period is ensured by the presence in the Accounting Plan of budgetary and distribution accounts, which include: 96 “Reserves for future expenses”; 97 "Future expenses"; 98 "Deferred income".
Accounts 96 and 97 have a lot in common. On both debits, actual expenses associated with the production and economic activities of the enterprise are reflected, and on their credit, these expenses are evenly written off according to established standards to the corresponding calculation objects. The difference between them is that in account 97 “Future expenses”, expenses, sometimes made at a time and in large quantities, are first reflected in debit, and then they are gradually written off (repaid) in credit. As a result, in this account the balance of expenses that have not yet been written off is reflected in the debit of the account, therefore it belongs to active accounts.
Account 96 “Reserves for future expenses” first reflects the creation of the necessary reserve to cover future expenses by credit, by including them in the cost of production according to the norm, and then the debit reflects the actual expenses incurred. As a result, the balance of the unused reserve in this account is reflected in the credit of the account, therefore it is classified as a passive account. If the created reserve is insufficient, this account may turn into its opposite - account 97 “Future expenses”.
Account 98 “Deferred income” allows you to evenly attribute income to the financial results of the corresponding reporting period. In the credit of this account, income for future reporting periods is first reflected, and in the corresponding reporting period, taking into account expenses incurred, from the debit of this account, income is written off to the financial results of the reporting period. The balance of deferred income that has not yet been written off is reflected in the credit of account 98, therefore it belongs to passive accounts.
All budgetary and distribution accounts are related to the balance sheet, although they are located in the 2000 Chart of Accounts in Section VIII “Financial Results”.
Information is generated on costing accounts for costing calculations of the actual cost of prepared inventories, manufactured products, etc.
The debit of the calculation accounts reflects the costs associated with the formation of: the inventory value of fixed assets (account 08 “Investments in non-current assets”); cost of procurement of materials (account 15 “Procurement and acquisition of material assets”); cost of production products (account 20 “Main production”), etc. Received and capitalized material assets are written off at the calculated cost on the credit of the calculation accounts. The presence of debit balances on them indicates that they also have signs of inventory accounts. These are active accounts. Accounts such as 28 “Production defects” and 44 “Sales expenses” have all the signs of collective distribution accounts, and account 28 has no balance at all, and therefore is not related to the balance sheet.
When talking about the classification of accounts, it should be borne in mind that some accounts have characteristics of several classification groups. Their place in the classification should be determined by their main feature.
In the presented classification of accounts, many accounts in Section VIII “Financial Results” of the 2000 Chart of Accounts are classified as operating accounts according to their structural characteristics. Account 94 “Shortages and losses from damage to valuables” has the structure of a collective distribution account, and accounts 96 “Reserves for future expenses”, 97 “Deferred expenses” and 98 “Future income” have the structure of budgetary distribution accounts.
Accounts 90 “Sales” and 91 “Other income and expenses” are classified as financial-resulting accounts. This also includes the final profit and loss account 99 “Profits and losses”. These three accounting accounts form a single block of interconnected accounts, the information of which is used to generate income statement indicators.
Accounts 90 “Sales” and 91 “Other income and expenses” are classified as matching accounts. Their credit records their income, and their debit records their expenses. If income exceeds expenses, the difference is written off as profit to the credit of account 99 “Profits and losses”, and if expenses exceed, as a loss to the debit of account 99. There is no balance on both accounts, therefore they are not directly related to the balance sheet.
Account 99 "Profits and losses" - final. It serves to summarize the financial results of the enterprise and is active-passive. If the financial result is profit, it is passive, while a loss makes it active in essence, but in the balance sheet any financial result is reflected in the liability in the form of retained earnings or uncovered loss, shown with a minus sign.
The relationship of accounting accounts with the balance sheet and the belonging of each account to the corresponding classification group (groups) are shown in table. 1.
Table 1
Classification characteristics of accounts
Chart of Accounts 2000
Name |
Number |
To belong to |
Active - A |
Formation method |
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transfer |
preliminary |
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addition |
decomposition |
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Basic |
Inventory |
||||||
Depreciation |
Regulating, |
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Profitable |
Inventory |
||||||
Intangible |
Inventory |
||||||
Depreciation |
Regulating, |
||||||
Equipment for |
Inventory |
||||||
Investments in |
Calculation, |
||||||
Materials |
Inventory |
||||||
Animals on |
Inventory |
||||||
Reserves for |
Regulating, |
||||||
Procurement and |
Calculating |
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Deviation in |
Regulating, |
||||||
Tax on |
Calculations |
||||||
Basics |
Calculation, |
||||||
Semi-finished products |
Inventory |
||||||
Auxiliary |
Calculation, |
||||||
General production |
Collectively - |
||||||
General economic |
Collectively - |
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Marriage in |
Calculation, |
||||||
Attendants |
Calculating |
||||||
Release |
Regulatory |
||||||
Inventory |
|||||||
Trading |
Regulating, |
||||||
Ready |
Inventory |
||||||
Expenses for |
Calculation, |
||||||
Goods |
Calculations |
||||||
Completed |
Inventory |
||||||
Inventory |
|||||||
Current accounts |
Inventory |
||||||
Currency accounts |
Inventory |
||||||
Special |
Inventory |
||||||
Translations |
Inventory |
||||||
Financial |
Inventory |
||||||
Reserves for |
Regulating, |
||||||
Calculations with |
Calculations |
||||||
Calculations with |
Calculations |
||||||
Reserves for |
Regulating, |
||||||
Calculations according to |
Calculations |
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Calculations according to |
Calculations |
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Calculations according to |
Calculations |
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Calculations according to |
Calculations |
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Calculations with |
Calculations |
||||||
Calculations with |
Calculations |
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Calculations with |
Calculations |
||||||
Calculations with |
Calculations |
||||||
Calculations with |
Calculations |
||||||
On-farm |
Calculations |
||||||
Statutory |
Stock |
||||||
Own |
Inventory |
||||||
Spare |
Stock |
||||||
Additional |
Stock |
||||||
Unallocated |
Stock |
||||||
Target |
Stock |
||||||
Matching |
|||||||
Other income and |
Matching |
||||||
Shortages and |
Collectively - |
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Reserves |
Budget - |
||||||
Future expenses |
Budget - |
||||||
Future income |
Budget - |
||||||
Profits and |
Financially - |
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By the nature of the account balance in the table. 1 are divided into active (A), passive (P) and accounts without balance (BO), which means there is no connection with the balance.
According to the method of forming balance sheet items, accounts are divided into three groups:
direct mechanical transfer of the account balance to the balance sheet;
preliminary arithmetic (algebraic) operations, as a result of which a balance sheet item is formed on the basis of information contained in several accounting accounts (sub-accounts);
preliminary arithmetic operations, as a result of which balance sheet items are formed based on data obtained by decomposing the information from one account into two balance sheet items.
Regulatory accounts These are accounts that clarify the assessment of certain types of property due to the specificity of the objects taken into account.
The accounts of this group do not have independent significance, since they clarify and correct the assessment of certain types of property and its sources. These accounts are used in accounting in parallel with the main account.
Regulatory accounts are divided according to the method of regulating the valuation of objects reflected in the main accounts.
If the regulation of the current accounting valuation of the objects of accounting of the main accounts to the amount of their book value is carried out by subtracting the amount of the regulating account from the accounting price of the object of the main account, then such regulating accounts are called contra accounts.
Contrary accounts to active main accounts are called contractual with the loan balance. They are classified as passive accounts because the asset is opposed to the liability.
Valuation reserve accounts act as regulatory contractual accounts. These include accounts: 14 “Reserves for the decline in the value of material assets”, 59 “Reserves for the depreciation of investments in securities”, 63 “Reserves for doubtful debts”.
Most regulatory accounts are contractual, i.e. passive accounts. They are paired with the following active accounts:
02 "Depreciation of fixed assets" to account 01 "Fixed assets",
05 "Amortization of intangible assets" to account 04 "Intangible assets",
14 “Reserves for reduction in the value of material assets” to account 10 “Materials” and other accounts,
42 "Trade margin" to account 41 "Goods",
59 “Reserves for impairment of investments in securities” to account 58 “Financial investments”,
63 “Provisions for doubtful debts” to account 62 “Settlements with buyers and customers”.
Since regulatory accounts do not have independent significance, they are not directly presented in the balance sheet.
Additional Accounts in relation to the balance sheet are active and their purpose is to supplement (increase) the initial assessment of the object being taken into account. Additional accounts include accounts 15 “Procurement and acquisition of material assets”; 40 “Release of products (works, services).” Each of them supplements (clarifies) the initial assessment of its main account.
Regulatory accounts can be contra-additional, for example, account 16 “Deviation in the cost of material assets.” This account, depending on its content, is either added (like an additional active account) to the current assessment of the object of the main account 10 (overexpenditure compared to the planned current assessment of materials), or, like a contractual account, it is subtracted from it (savings compared to the planned current assessment of materials). Deviations in the form of overexpenditure or savings from the credit of this account in the appropriate proportion are written off as materials are released from the warehouse.
6.6 Distribution accounts
Distribution accounts First of all, they have a control function in the formation of individual expenses and compliance with the estimates established for them, and are also used for the purpose of reasonable distribution between individual types of products (works, services) for a full calculation of their actual cost.
The structure of distribution accounts includes two groups of accounts: collection-distribution and budget-distribution.
Collective and distribution These are active accounts. They include expenses that cannot be directly attributed to specific product items, since they are collective, and then written off and distributed between these items in a conditional, indirect way. Therefore, such costs are called indirect costs.
A distinctive feature of collective distribution accounts is the absence of a balance on them. Therefore, they are not presented in the balance sheet. These accounts perform the accounting function of monitoring compliance with estimated allocations for such overhead expenses as 25 - general production or 26 - general business expenses, 44 “Sales expenses”, etc. They collect costs for them in the context of estimated debit items. The expenses collected on debit for the reporting period are written off from the credit of these accounts for calculation objects.
Budgetary and distribution accounts provide control over the validity of the distribution of expenses and income between reporting periods.
The principle of matching income and expenses and their temporal reference to the corresponding reporting period is ensured by the presence of budgetary distribution accounts in the chart of accounts. These include: account 96 “Reserves for future expenses”, 97 “Deferred expenses” and 98 “Deferred income”.
Accounts 96 and 97 have a lot in common. On both debits, actual expenses associated with the production and economic activities of the enterprise are reflected, and on their credit, these expenses are evenly written off according to established standards to the corresponding calculation objects.
The difference between them is that in account 97 “Future expenses” the debit reflects expenses that are made sometimes, at a time and in large quantities, and then they are gradually written off (repaid) on the credit. As a result, in this account the balance of expenses not yet written off is reflected in the debit of the account, therefore it is classified as active accounts.
Account 96 “Reserves for future expenses” first reflects the creation of the necessary reserve to cover future expenses by credit, by including them in the cost of production according to the norm, and then the debit reflects the actual expenses incurred. As a result, in this account the balance of the unused reserve is reflected in the credit of the account, therefore it belongs to passive accounts. If the created reserve is insufficient, this account may turn into its opposite - account 97 “Future expenses”.
Account 98 “Deferred income” allows you to evenly attribute income to the financial results of the corresponding reporting period. In the credit of this account, income for future reporting periods is first reflected, and in the corresponding reporting period, taking into account expenses incurred, from the debit of this account, income is written off to the financial results of the reporting period. The balance of deferred income not yet written off is reflected in the credit of account 98, therefore it belongs to passive accounts.
All budgetary and distribution accounts are related to the balance sheet and are located in the Chart of Accounts in Section VIII “Financial Results”.
In the theory and methodology of accounting, the system of accounts plays a special role, since with their use the problem of dual reflection of information, its accumulation and generalization is realized. Accounts are recorded using the double entry method.
Accounting account- this is a method of grouping, current control and reflection of business transactions that are carried out with property, the sources of its formation, and economic processes. An account is also a store of information, which is then summarized and used to compile various reporting aggregates.
Externally, the account is a table consisting of two parts. At the beginning of the table the name of the account is given - the name of the accounting object: “Materials”, “Authorized capital”, “Main production”, etc.
The counting scheme is as follows.
Account (name of accounting object)
The accounts reflect business transactions both in quantitative and monetary terms.
The left side of the account is called debit(abbreviated D-t), right side - loan(abbreviated K-t). Therefore, the “debit” and “credit” of an account correspond to its sides.
To denote balances on accounting accounts, the term is used balance(account balance). Typically, the balance at the beginning of the operation (at the beginning of the reporting period) is designated as Сн, and the balance at the end of the operation (at the end of the reporting period) is Sk.
Types of Accounting Accounts
All accounting accounts are divided into active and passive, based on this, there are two schemes of entries in the accounts.
Active- these are the accounting accounts that record different kinds property, their availability, composition, movement. Active account balances are debit only.
Passive- these are accounting accounts that take into account the sources of formation of property, their availability, composition, movement, as well as obligations. Passive accounts have only credit balances.
The layout of entries on the active account is as follows.
Active account (name of accounting object)
The passive account scheme is as follows. Passive account (name of accounting object)
|
Decrease in balance resulting from business transactions |
Сн - balance at the beginning of the operation Increase in balance resulting from business transactions |
|
Turnover on the debit of the account (the sum of all business transactions for the period) |
Turnover on account credit (sum of all business transactions) |
|
Sk - balance at the end of the period Sk = Sn + Ok - Od |
Basic accounting accounts- these are accounts that are used to control the availability and movement of an enterprise’s property by composition, location and sources of its formation. There are main active, main passive and main active-passive accounts.
Main active accounts- these are accounting accounts that are used to control and account for fixed assets, intangible assets, tangible and monetary assets, as well as settlements with debtors.
Basic passive accounts- these are accounting accounts that are used to record changes in capital, funds, donations received, credits, borrowings, obligations of the enterprise and settlements with creditors.
Basic active-passive accounts- These are accounting accounts that are designed to record settlements with third parties. These accounts keep records of settlements with debtors and creditors simultaneously.
Regulatory account- this is an accounting account designed to clarify and regulate the assessment of individual items of property and its sources recorded on the main account. Regulatory accounts do not have independent significance and are used only together with the main account. According to the method of clarifying the assessment, a distinction is made between contrarian, additional and contrarily-additional accounts.
Counter account is an account that reduces the balance of property in the main account by the amount of its balance. There are contractual and counter-passive accounts.
Contract account- this is an account that is used to clarify the balance of the main active account. The contract account reduces the balance of the main active account by the amount of its balance.
Counterpassive account- this is an account designed to clarify the amounts of sources of property recorded in a passive account. The counter-liability account balance reduces the source size of the main account.
Additional accounts- these are regulatory accounts that supplement the balance on the main accounts by the amount of their balance. There are active and passive additional accounts.
Additional active account- this is a regulating account, which, by the amount of its balance, supplements the balance of the main active account.
Additional passive account- this is a regulating account, which, by the amount of its balance, supplements the balance of the main passive account.
- these are regulating accounts that can increase or decrease the valuation of objects reflected in the main accounts.
If transactions are made on the main account using the additional entry method, then the counter-additional account acts as an additional regulatory account.
If postings are made on the main account using the red reversal method, then the counter-additional account acts as a counter account.
Budgetary distribution account is a distribution account designed to divide expenses between individual reporting periods. With the help of these accounts, fluctuations in product costs across reporting periods are eliminated. There are active and passive budget distribution accounts.
Calculation accounts- these are accounting accounts intended to calculate the cost of products produced, work performed or services provided in the reporting period. The debit of the calculation accounts reflects the costs of production, and the credit accounts write off the actual cost of manufactured products.
Operational account is an account that records expenses and income from operations related to the sale of products, performance of work, provision of services, disposal of fixed assets, materials, intangible assets and securities.
Accounting distribution account- this is an account that performs a control function in the formation of individual expenses and the estimate established for them, and is also used for the purpose of reasonable distribution of costs between individual types of work for a full calculation of their actual cost. There are collection-distribution and budget-distribution accounts.
Collection and distribution account is a distribution account used to account for expenses that, at the time of their occurrence, cannot be immediately attributed to specific products produced or sold. At the end of the month, these expenses are attributed to a specific type of product in accordance with accounting policies.
A matching accounting account is an account designed to calculate the financial result of individual business processes and the enterprise as a whole. In these accounts, the same accounting object is reflected in two different estimates: in one - on the debit side, and in the other - on the credit side of the account. There are operational-effective and financial-effective matching accounts.
Financial performance account- this is an account in which the credit reflects profits from the sale of various assets and other operations, and the debit of which reflects losses and other expenses.
Off-balance sheet accounts are intended to summarize information about the availability and movement of valuables temporarily in use or disposal of the organization (leased fixed assets, material assets in safekeeping, in processing, etc.), contingent rights and obligations, as well as for monitoring individual business transactions . Accounting for these objects is carried out using a simple system.
Classification of accounting accounts
To carry out proper economic groupings of business transactions and obtain the necessary indicators for monitoring, analyzing financial and economic activities and making management decisions, an economically correctly constructed system of accounting accounts, a clearly defined economic content of the accounts and a uniform reflection of business transactions on them are important. In this regard, all accounting accounts are classified (grouped) according to economic content and according to structure and purpose.
Classification of accounting accounts by economic content is based on the grouping of objects of accounting observation, i.e. the economic content of the information recorded on the account indicates the object for which this account is intended to reflect. In accordance with this, accounts are allocated for accounting:
This classification of accounts according to economic content, divided into accounts that take into account property indicating the area of its location, accounts of sources of property formation and accounts of economic processes and results, allows us to identify all the accounts necessary for accounting, establish unity and differences in the methodology for reflecting information on them and obtaining necessary indicators for monitoring the expenditure of funds, the safety of property, and the implementation of production, economic and financial activities of the organization.
Account classification by purpose and structure in accounting, it does not link accounts with specific economic indicators that are reflected in the accounts. This grouping shows the features of constructing and assigning accounts in the accounting information system. The grouping of accounting accounts by purpose and structure indicates the common features inherent in the structure of individual accounts and the methods for obtaining turnover and balance indicators in them. When classifying accounts by purpose and structure, they use the method of accounting for property, sources of its formation and business processes. Accounting accounts, according to their purpose and structure, are divided into five groups: main accounts, regulating accounts, operating accounts, financial-resulting accounts, off-balance sheet accounts.
Main are accounts through which they record and control the availability and movement of property owned by the enterprise and the sources of its formation. The main accounts are divided into inventory (material), stock (capital), and settlement accounts.
Inventory (material) accounts are used to account for the presence and movement of material assets and cash by type of property. These include accounts. “Fixed assets”, “Materials”, “Finished products”, “Cash desk”, “Cash accounts”, etc. All
inventory accounts are active. The debit of these accounts reflects the presence and receipt, and the credit reflects the disposal of accounting objects. The balance on these accounts is always debit.
Stock accounts are used to account for their own sources of property formation. These include accounts. “Authorized capital”, “Reserve capital”, “Additional capital”, etc. All stock accounts are passive. The credit reflects the formation and subsequent increase in equity capital, and the debit reflects the decrease in the process of using capital. The balance of these accounts is only in credit.
Settlement accounts are intended to take into account the settlement relationships of this organization with suppliers, buyers, credit institutions, financial authorities, employees of the enterprise, various debtors and creditors. Accounts for accounting for settlements can be active (account 73 “Settlements with personnel for other operations”, etc.), passive (account 66 “Settlements for short-term loans and borrowings”, account 70 “Settlements with personnel for wages” and etc.), active-passive (account 60 “Settlements with suppliers and contractors”, account 76 “Settlements with various debtors and creditors”, etc.).
Regulatory accounts are intended to clarify (regulate) the valuation of objects recorded in the main accounts. Regulatory accounts are divided into additional, counter, counter-additional.
Additional regulatory accounts they are called accounts if the actual value of the objects accounted for in the main active and passive accounts is clarified by adding the amount of the regulatory account to their accounting price. Additional regulatory accounts correspond to the active account structure, and passive accounts correspond to the passive account structure.
Contrary regulatory accounts are intended to determine the actual value of the regulated object accounted for on the main active or passive account by subtracting the amount of the regulation of the regulating account from the accounting price of the main account object. Contrary accounts are either contractive (passive) or counterpassive (active). Contractual regulatory accounts are used to regulate the performance of active main accounts. These include accounts. 02 “Depreciation of fixed assets”, 05 “Depreciation of intangible assets”, 63 “Provisions for doubtful debts”, etc. The structure of these accounts corresponds to a passive account. For example, to determine the residual value of fixed assets, you need to subtract from the amount of the account balance. 01 “Fixed assets” the amount of accumulated depreciation according to the account. 02, etc.
Counterpassive (active) accounts are used to regulate the indicators of the main passive accounts. These, for example, include account. 19 “Value added tax on acquired assets”, which is regulating in relation to the account. 68 “Calculations for taxes and fees” regarding VAT accounting. those. reducing the amount to be contributed to the budget. This regulatory account is used to reflect in accounting the amount of VAT paid to suppliers, but not yet accepted for offset in settlements with the budget. The structure of this account 19 corresponds to the active account.
Counter-additional accounts combine the features of counter and additional accounts. An example of such accounts is an account. 16 “Deviation in the cost of material assets.” Deviation is the difference in the cost of acquired material assets, calculated in the actual cost of acquisition and accounting prices. Deviations of actual costs from accounting prices can be positive (overspending) or negative (savings). Positive deviations (overexpenditure) are added to the cost of the recorded material assets, and negative deviations (savings) are subtracted from the accounting value of the material assets to determine the actual cost. This account is active-passive, i.e. overspending is reflected in the debit of the account, and savings are reflected in the credit.
Transaction accounts are intended for accounting and control of business processes and are divided into distribution, calculation, and matching.
Distribution accounts are designed to control certain expenses in the process of circulation of funds and ensure the correct distribution of them between various accounting objects. Distribution accounts are divided into collective-distribution and budget-distribution.
TO collection and distribution accounts These include accounts intended for collecting expenses for a particular business process for the purpose of further assigning them for their intended purpose to the appropriate accounts that take into account all costs for this process. These accounts provide the necessary information to monitor the implementation of cost estimates. Such accounts are accounts. 25 “General production expenses”, 26 “General business expenses”, 44 “Sales expenses”, etc. All these accounts are active, expenses are collected by debit, and expenses by credit are written off to the appropriate accounts, for example to an account. 20, count. 90. Collection and distribution accounts do not have a balance at the end of the month and are not shown in the balance sheet. The status of these accounts as active is determined by their initial entry in the debit of the account.
Budgetary distribution accounts are intended for accounting and distribution of income and expenses based on the principle of their temporal certainty for the corresponding reporting period. Such accounts include accounts. 97 “Deferred expenses”, 98 “Deferred income”, 96 “Reserves for future expenses”. Account 97 is active, account 98 is passive. Account 96 “Reserves for future expenses” is passive and is intended to account for the created reserve to cover expenses related to subsequent reporting periods, for example, the creation of a reserve for vacation pay, a guarantee reserve, etc.
Calculation accounts are used to determine the actual cost of acquired material assets, manufactured products, performed work and services. These include accounts. 15 “Procurement and acquisition of material assets”, 20 “Main production”, 23 “Auxiliary production”, etc. The debit of these accounts reflects the costs that make up the actual cost of procured material reserves or manufactured products, and the credit reflects the write-off of costs included into the actual cost of material assets, products, i.e. the actual cost is written off. The debit balance shows the costs of material assets that did not arrive at the warehouse or products that were not completed in production, i.e. cost of work in progress.
Matching accounts used to identify results of business processes. The peculiarity of these accounts is that they reflect different assessments on debit and credit, characterizing the same process. The results are determined by comparing these scores. For example, to identify the result from the sale of products, the full actual cost of products sold is compared with the amount of revenue in sales prices. This comparison is made according to the count. 90 “Sales” by recording the full actual cost of products sold as a debit to this account and revenue at sales prices as a credit. In this case, the excess of credit turnover over debit indicates a profit, and the excess of debit over credit indicates a loss. Account balance 90 “Sales” does not remain, since the result is written off to account 99 “Profits and losses”.
Financial-resulting accounts serve to identify the final financial result of the organization’s activities. This includes accounts. 99 “Profits and losses”, which is active-passive; its debit records losses, and its credit records income and profit. The debit balance of this account shows a net loss, the credit balance shows a net profit. At the end of the reporting year, the financial result from the account. 99 is debited to the account. 84 “Retained earnings (uncovered loss).”
Off-balance sheet accounts. First of all, it should be emphasized that all property and sources of its formation belonging to the organization are recorded on balance sheet accounts. Property that is in the use of the organization, but does not belong to it or is in the custody of the organization, as well as ongoing business transactions that do not currently affect the state of the balance sheet and the results of the organization’s activities, but require special control, are taken into account in off-balance sheet accounts and shown in appendices to the balance sheet (i.e., behind the balance sheet total). Off-balance sheet accounts include, for example, accounts. 001 “Leased fixed assets”, 002 “Inventory assets accepted for safekeeping”, etc.
A feature of off-balance sheet accounts is that they are recorded without using the double entry method. Off-balance sheet accounts do not correspond with each other or with other balance sheet accounts; they can be active or passive.
The large number of accounts used to record objects of accounting supervision necessitates systematization of accounts, providing a unified accounting methodology in various organizations. This is achieved by establishing a specific list (plan) of accounts used for current accounting.
Chart of accounts Accounting refers to a systematic list of accounts, classified by economic content, defining a unified accounting methodology, rules for grouping and summarizing information for the operational management and control of the financial and economic activities of an organization.
Since 01/01/2001, on the territory of Russia, economic entities (except for credit and budgetary ones) of all forms of ownership have been using the Chart of Accounts for accounting financial and economic activities and the Instructions for its application, approved by Order of the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation dated October 31, 2000 No. 94-n. The Chart of Accounts contains the names and numbers (codes) of synthetic accounts (first order accounts) and subaccounts (second order synthetic accounts). Instructions for the use of the Chart of Accounts establish uniform approaches to the application of the Chart of Accounts and the reflection of facts of economic activity in accounting accounts.
IN last years In connection with the adoption of new provisions on the accounting of individual objects of accounting supervision, several additional accounts of both first and second order were introduced into the current Chart of Accounts, and changes were also made to the characteristics of some synthetic accounts (first order accounts).
In the current Chart of Accounts, all balance sheet accounts are combined into eight sections. At the same time, in the first five sections and part of the sixth section (accounts receivable), accounts are grouped containing information on the composition and placement of property and on the costs of production and circulation processes (purchase of inventories and sales of finished products, works and services). The accounts of sections seven, eight and parts of section six (accounts payable) summarize information about the sources of property and financial results.
“Off-balance sheet accounts” are allocated to a separate group in the Chart of Accounts.
The subaccounts provided for in the Chart of Accounts are used by organizations depending on the need for control, management of activities and reporting.
Analytical accounts are not entered into the Chart of Accounts; organizations open them depending on the need to obtain certain information for management and making informed decisions.
Organizations are allowed to draw up a working chart of accounts with the number of accounts required to account for financial and economic activities. Working charts of accounts are drawn up on the basis of the specified Chart of Accounts. To account for specific transactions, organizations can, in agreement with the Ministry of Finance of the Russian Federation, enter, if necessary, additional synthetic accounts (first order) into the Chart of Accounts, using free account numbers (codes).
The Instructions for the Application of the Chart of Accounts reflect the basic principles of accounting; a brief description of synthetic accounts (first order) and subaccounts (synthetic accounts of the second order) is given: the structure and purpose, economic content of the summarized information are revealed; The correspondence of accounts with other accounting accounts is provided.
for accounting for fixed assets and intangible and other non-current assets (01 “Fixed assets”, 03 “Income-generating investments in tangible assets”, 04 “Intangible assets”, 07 “Equipment for installation”, 08 “Investments in”, 09 “Deferred tax assets ");
for accounting of production inventories (10 “Materials”, 11 “Animals for growing and fattening”, 14 “Reserves for reducing the cost of material assets”, 16 “Deviation in the cost of material assets”);
on accounting of costs for the manufacture and production of products, works and services (15 “Procurement and acquisition of material assets”, 20 “Main production”, 21 “Semi-finished products of own production”, 23 “Auxiliary production”, 25 “General production expenses”, 26 “General expenses”, 28 “Defects in production”, 40 “Release of products (works, services)”, 44 “Sales expenses”, 46 “Completed stages of work in progress”, “97 “Deferred expenses”);
2. Account of non-productive consumption (29 “Servicing industries and households);
3. Circulation accounts:
for accounting of finished products and sales (41 “Goods”, 42 “Trade margin”, 43 “Finished products”, 45 “Shipped goods”, 90 “Sales”, 91 “Other income and expenses”);
on accounting of funds and investments (50 “Cash”, 51 “Current account”, 52 “Currency accounts”, 55 “Special bank accounts”, 57 “Transfers in transit”, 58 “Financial investments”);
· for accounting for funds in settlements (, 62 “Settlements with buyers and customers”, , 73 “Settlements with personnel for other operations”, 75 “Settlements with founders” sub-account “Settlements for contributions to the authorized (share) capital”, , 77 " Deferred tax assets",);
4. Accounts for accounting for distribution (84 “Retained earnings (uncovered loss), 99 “Profits and losses”).
on accounting of financial results (98 “Deferred income”, 99 “Profits and losses”).
2. Accounts for accounting for borrowed sources:
for accounting of accounts payable (60 “Settlements with suppliers and contractors”, 71 “Settlements with accountable persons”, 75 “Settlements with founders” sub-account “Settlements for the payment of income”, 76 “Settlements with various debtors and creditors”, 79 “Intra-business settlements ");
on accounting for permanent obligations (68 “Settlements with the budget”, 69 “Calculations for social insurance and security”, 70 “Settlements with personnel for wages”).
According to the purpose and structure of the accounting accounts, they can be classified as follows:
main accounts;
regulatory accounts;
distribution accounts;
calculation accounts;
The chart of accounts contains values that are taken into account that are temporarily held by the organization, but do not belong to it. The essence of accounting on off-balance sheet accounts is that they reflect events and transactions that do not currently affect the balance sheet of the organization and the results of its financial and economic activities. Entries in off-balance sheet accounts are maintained either in debit or credit, that is, there is no correspondence between off-balance sheet accounts and other accounting accounts.
Accounting for property, liabilities and business transactions is carried out in the currency of the Russian Federation. In accordance with Article 27 of the Federal Law of July 10, 2002 No. 86-FZ “On the Central Bank of the Russian Federation (Bank of Russia),” the official monetary unit (currency) of the Russian Federation is the ruble. The introduction of other monetary units on the territory of the Russian Federation and the issuance of monetary surrogates are prohibited.
Documentation of property, liabilities and other facts of economic activity, maintenance of accounting and reporting registers is carried out in Russian. In accordance with Article 3 of the Law of the Russian Federation of October 25, 1991 No. 1807-1 “On the languages of the peoples of the Russian Federation,” Russian is the state language of the Russian Federation throughout its entire territory. The provision on the state language of the Russian Federation is also enshrined in Article 68 of the Constitution of the Russian Federation, adopted on December 12, 1993, according to which Russian is the state language of the Russian Federation.
You can find out more about issues related to accounting and reporting in the book of JSC “BKR-Intercom-Audit” “ Accounting and reporting (key points)».
During the operation of an enterprise, many operations occur related to the movement of economic assets, which are reflected in the accounting accounts. To keep records, it is necessary to determine what changes will occur in the company’s funds as a result of each business transaction, and also indicate in which accounts the amount of the transaction should be reflected. For the correct use of accounts, it is necessary to know the purpose of each account, its structure and economic content, as well as the characteristics of turnover and balance. For these purposes, the classification of accounting accounts is used.
Account classification – this is a grouping of accounts according to the most significant characteristics, which allows for uniformity in the reflection of business transactions, comparability and reducibility of relevant indicators. Classification of accounts makes it possible to determine the economic load of each accounting account.
Accounting accounts are classified:
- depending on what funds are kept in the accounts - active, passive and active-passive;
- according to the level of detail of accounting - into synthetic, analytical and sub-accounts;
- in relation to the balance sheet - on-balance sheet and off-balance sheet;
- by economic content - into nine groups, which are reflected in the Chart of Accounts;
- by purpose and structure - to accounts for accounting for economic assets and accounts intended for accounting for the economic processes of the enterprise.
By purpose and structure accounting accounts are divided into two groups (Fig. 7.1). The first group of accounts is intended for accounting for business assets; the accounts in this group are divided into main, regulating and off-balance sheet accounts. In turn, main accounts are divided into inventory, stock and current accounts.
The second group of accounts is intended to account for business processes. This group includes distribution, calculation and result accounts.
Classification of accounts according to economic content (economic classification) provides an answer to the questions: what is reflected in this or that account and how many accounts are needed for this or that object to receive a full description in current accounting?
Only if the specified requirements are met, information about any object will be useful for users in order for the latter to make informed management decisions.
The construction of a classification of accounts according to economic content is tied to the reproduction of the total social product, and therefore the list of accounts is focused on each of its stages (process).
According to the economic content of accounting objects accounts are divided into three groups:
- accounts of business transactions and financial results;
- property accounts and liabilities by sources of their formation;
- property accounts by composition and location.
Business and financial statements are divided:
- – to financial results accounts (91, 99, 84);
- – sales process accounts (90);
- – production process accounts (20, 21, 23, 25, 26, 28, 29, 40, 44, 46);
- – accounts of the procurement process (11, 15, 16).
Property accounts and liabilities by sources of their formation share;
– to the accounts of borrowed sources of property formation: account of the enterprise’s debt obligations to its personnel (70); debt accounts for settlements with the budget and extra-budgetary funds (68, 69); accounts of other accounts payable (60, 62, 76); credit and loan accounts (66, 67);
Rice. 7.1.
– accounts of own sources of property formation: profit and loss account (84); accounts of budget financing and receipt of funds by way of donation (86, 98); accounts of capital, funds and reserves (63, 80, 82,83, 96).
Property accounts by composition and location are divided:
- – to accounts of funds in settlements (60, 62, 71, 73, 76);
- – accounts of cash and financial assets (50, 51, 52, 55, 57, 58);
- – working capital accounts (10, 14, 41, 43);
- – accounts of intangible assets (04, 05);
- – fixed asset accounts (01, 02, 03, 07, 08).
In economic classification, individual accounts that reveal the status of property are combined with the corresponding processes. These accounts are combined into groups that have economic homogeneity of the accounting objects taken into account.
Account classification by purpose and structure (structural classification) complements the economic classification in terms of the scientific formulation of accounting.
The purpose of classifying accounts by purpose and structure is to obtain the necessary information about the formation and use of economic assets, as well as the sources of their formation.
A sign of this classification are the general accounting rules for each group of accounts and the maintenance of analytical accounting.
This classification answers the questions: how are objects accounted for in a particular group of accounts, why are certain accounts needed, what indicators can be obtained using separate accounts in order to effectively manage an enterprise? The division of accounts depends on the direct function in the accounting process. According to their purpose and structure, accounts are divided into five groups: main, regulatory, operational (which include distribution and calculation accounts), matching (resulting) accounts, and off-balance sheet accounts.
Main accounts– accounting accounts designed to reflect assets and their sources. They are used to control the presence and movement of property by composition and location and by the sources of its formation. They are basic because the objects taken into account serve as the basis for the economic activity of the enterprise. A group of main accounts is distinguished when classifying accounting accounts according to their purpose and structure.
Main accounts are divided into three subgroups.
Main active accounts are used for accounting and control of intangible assets, fixed assets, cash and material assets, as well as settlements with debtors (01, 04, 07, 08, 10, 43, 41, 50, 51, 52, 55). These accounts include: inventory accounts used to record property subject to inventory and control over its availability and movement, in which records are kept in both monetary and physical units (01, 04, 07, 10, 43, 41) ; cash accounts in which accounting is kept only in monetary units (50, 51, 52, 55); partially - settlement accounts (for example, 73).
All of these accounts have the same structure and can only have a debit (or zero) balance. At the same time, the debit of these accounts shows the initial and final balance, as well as the receipt of monetary and material assets, and the credit of the account shows their disposal (Table 7.1).
Table 7.1
Structure of the main active account
Basic passive accounts are used to account for changes in funds, capital, received financing, loans and credits, obligations of the enterprise and settlements with creditors (63, 66, 67, 80, 82, 98). These accounts include capital accounts and partly settlement accounts. The balance of these accounts can only be credit (or zero). It shows the presence of own and borrowed sources and debt to other organizations and individuals. The credit of these accounts reflects the presence of sources and debts and their increase, and the debit shows the corresponding decrease (Table 7.2).
Table 7.2
Structure of the main passive account
Basic active-passive (current accounts are intended for accounting and control of settlements of a given organization with various legal entities and individuals. These accounts record settlements simultaneously with debtors and creditors or with one enterprise, which, being a debtor after several operations, can turn into a creditor or vice versa (60, 62, 68, 69, 70, 71, 75, 76). The same active-passive account can be both active and passive. At the same time: for the debit of accounts, the formation of accounts receivable and the repayment of accounts payable is taken into account, and for the loan – the formation of accounts payable and the repayment of accounts receivable; the debit balance is in the asset, and the credit balance is in the liability of the balance sheet. A numerical example characterizing the structure of such an account is given in Table. 7.3.
Table 7.3
Structure of the main active-passive account
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The opening balance is accounts receivable at the beginning of the reporting period - 100,000 rubles. |
Initial balance - accounts payable at the beginning of the reporting period - 150,000 rubles. |
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|
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The final balance is accounts receivable at the end of the reporting period - 90,000 rubles. |
The final balance is accounts payable at the end of the reporting period - 160,000 rubles. |
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Formula: DM2 = DM1 + Od1 – OK2 = 100,000 + 50,000 – 60,000 = 90,000 rub. |
Formula: SK2 = SK1 + Οκ1 – Od2 = 150,000 + 40,000 – 30,000 = 160,000 rubles. |
Regulatory accounts are intended to regulate (adjust) and clarify the assessment of economic assets, obtain additional indicators about the state of these funds, as well as to clarify their sources (property objects and their sources, which are recorded on the main accounts). Regulating accounts play a special role in accounting, keeping the assessment of objects unchanged on the main accounts and clarifying it. They have no independent meaning and are used only together with the main account to adjust its indicators. In this case, the adjustment amount is added to the main account amount or subtracted from it.
The need to use regulatory accounts is determined by the established rules for assessing economic assets. However, in current accounting, it is sometimes necessary to have data in two estimates (for example, the initial and residual value of fixed assets, intangible assets, the actual cost of materials and their value at wholesale or other prices, etc.). To do this, you need accounts to account for depreciation, deviations of actual costs, etc.
According to the method of clarifying the assessment, all regulatory accounts are divided into counter, additional and counter-additional accounts.
Regulating accounts, the data of which are subtracted from the amounts of the main accounts, are called contrarian. They reduce the balance of assets in the main accounts by the amount of their balance. Depending on this, they are divided into contractive and counterpassive accounts.
Contract accounts are used to clarify the residual value of the main active accounts (they reduce the balance of the main active account by the amount of their balance). There are two accounts involved here - the main and the regulating one: the main account acts as an active account, and the regulating one acts as a passive (opposing, or contractive) account.
Contractual accounts include: 02 “Depreciation of fixed assets”, 05 “Depreciation of intangible assets”, which regulate accounts 01 and 04, respectively, as well as account 14 “Reserves for the reduction of the value of material assets” (regulates accounts of material assets), account 59 “ Reserves for impairment of investments in securities" (regulates account 58), account 63 "Provisions for doubtful debts" (regulates accounts receivable accounts).
Counterpassive account is intended to clarify the amounts of sources of property recorded in the passive account. The counter-liability account balance reduces the source size of the main account. The main account acts as a passive account, and the regulating (counter-passive) account acts as an active account. As an example, we can point to account 81 “Own shares (shares)”, intended for accounting for own shares purchased from shareholders, which leads to a decrease (adjustment) in the amount of actually operating authorized capital.
Regulating accounts, the data of which are added to the amounts of the main accounts, are called additional. They increase the balance of property in the main accounts by the amount of their balance. Depending on which account is supplemented, they are divided into active and passive.
Additional active account supplements the balance of the main active accounts by the amount of its balance. Regulating and main accounts are active. These, for example, include account 44 “Sales expenses” in relation to account 90 “Sales”.
Additional passive account supplements the balance of the corresponding main passive account by the amount of its balance. Both accounts act as passive accounts. Example – account 63 “Provisions for doubtful debts” in relation to account 91 “Other income and expenses”.
Counter-additional accounts can increase or decrease the valuation of objects reflected in the main accounts. If entries are made on this account using the additional entry method, then the account acts as an additional regulatory account, and when entries are made on the account using the red reversal (reduction) method, it acts as a contra account. An example is account 16 “Deviation in the cost of material assets.”
Distribution accounts– accounting accounts designed to record certain production expenses and ensure the correctness and justification of their distribution among costing objects, reporting periods, etc. for a full calculation of their actual cost. Distribution accounts perform a control function. These accounts are divided into two groups: collection-distribution and budget-distribution (distribution) accounts.
Collection and distribution accounts are used to account for expenses that, at the time of their occurrence, cannot be immediately attributed to specific manufactured or sold products (indirect expenses). At the end of the month, these expenses are attributed to a specific type of product in accordance with the accepted methodology (according to accounting policies). Thus, collection and distribution accounts are designed to record and control expenses of the current reporting period, which require subsequent distribution (Table 7.4). Such accounts include: 25 “General production expenses”, 26 “General business expenses”, 44 “Sales expenses”.
Table 7.4
Structure of the collection and distribution account
Budgetary distribution accounts are intended for dividing expenses between individual reporting (budget) periods, for accounting for expenses of future periods and their correct distribution among reporting periods. Using this group of accounts, fluctuations in product costs across reporting periods are eliminated (Table 7.5). Accounts in this group can be either active (account 97 “Future expenses”) or passive (account 96 “Reserves for future expenses”).
Table 7.5
Structure of the active budget distribution account
Calculation accounts– accounting accounts used to obtain data necessary for calculating the cost (calculation) of manufactured products and work performed, grouping production costs in the reporting period.
These include accounts 20 “Main production”, 23 “Auxiliary production”, 28 “Defects in production”, 29 “Service production and farms”, 08 “Investments in non-current assets”.
In the debit of the calculation accounts, expenses (expenses), production of products (works, services), as well as expenses associated with both the creation and acquisition of individual accounting objects are recorded.
The credit of such accounts reflects (writes off) the actual cost of manufactured (released) products, services rendered, actual costs of completed work, acquisition (creation) of individual accounting objects (Table 7.6).
The balance on these accounts may be in debit. It shows the size of work in progress (costs of unfinished processes) and is called “Costs in work in progress (construction)”.
Analytical accounting for calculation accounts is carried out in the context of calculation objects and calculation items.
Costing accounts allow you to obtain the information necessary to calculate the cost of products produced, work performed, services provided, which is very important for assessing the efficiency of an organization (since the lower the cost, the greater the profit).
Table 7.6
Structure of the calculation account
The credit of the calculation account reflects the costs in one estimate, and the debit - in another. To equalize the debit and credit amounts, you must make an additional or reversal entry. For example, under the credit of account 20 “Main production” during the reporting period, the output of products (performance of work, provision of services) is recorded at standard cost or at accounting prices. At the end of the reporting period, an adjustment is made and the cost is brought to the actual cost using two possible methods: red reversal or additional entry.
Red reversal method used when the standard cost is higher than the actual cost. In this case, the amount of the difference in assessments is recorded in red ink. Since the numbers written in red are subtracted (“reversed”), this means that the original amount is reduced by the amount of the reversal entry, which is recorded by posting: Debit 43 “Finished products” Credit 20 “Main production”(minus sign is implied).
Additional recording method used when the actual cost exceeds the standard cost. In this case, an (additional) entry is made in normal color. The following entry is made in accounting: Debit 43 “Finished products” Credit 20 “Main production”.
Matching accounts are intended for calculating the financial results of both individual business processes and the enterprise as a whole, by comparing debit and credit turnovers recorded in these accounts. A peculiarity of the structure of these accounts is the reflection of one accounting object in two different estimates: in one - on the debit side, and in the other - on the credit side of the account (it is recommended to open several separate sub-accounts for this). By comparing these estimates, the result of certain business processes (for example, sales) is revealed, which is written off from subaccount 90-9 specially opened for this purpose (Table 7.7).
Table 7.7
Settling Account Structure
These accounts are divided into two subgroups: operational-resulting and financial-resulting.
Operational-resulting accounts are provided for summarizing information about individual processes of the enterprise’s economic activity, as well as determining the financial result for each of them.
These include accounts 90 “Sales” and 91 “Other income and expenses”.
The debit of these accounts records: the cost of sold products, works, services; residual value of fixed assets and book value of other current assets; expenses associated with the disposal of assets, as well as fines, penalties, penalties and interest paid. The credit of accounts 90 and 91 reflects revenue and income from other operations. By comparing debit and credit turnovers, profit or loss from sales (account 90) and other operations (account 91) is determined.
These accounts do not have a balance. The balances received from them are written off monthly and included in the financial results from sales and other operations from subaccounts 90-9, 91-9 to the debit or credit of account 99 “Profits and losses”.
These accounts record expenses and income from operations related to the sale of products, performance of various works, provision of services, disposal of fixed assets, intangible assets, securities, and materials.
Financial-resulting accounts are intended to determine the financial result of the organization’s economic activities. An example is active-passive account 99 “Profits and losses”, as well as account 98 “Deferred income”. Account 99 reflects the financial result (profit or loss) from the sale of various property items and other operations (operating and non-operating income, reduced by the amount of operating and non-operating expenses). The credit of account 99 records profit, but the debit records losses.
By comparing debit and credit turnovers, the final financial result is determined: the credit balance shows profit, the debit balance shows loss (Table 7.8).
Table 7.8
Structure of the financial-resulting account