Who is Julius Caesar? Gaius Julius Caesar, Roman dictator, founder of the Roman Empire. The Early Years of Julius Caesar

Crisis of the Roman Republic

In the 1st century BC. The Roman Republic was in a long and deep crisis, caused primarily by the inconsistency of the management system with the level of the tasks facing it. The laws and traditions in force at that time were created at a time when Rome was a relatively small polis, surrounded by rural territories under its control. As it turned out, they were poorly adapted to the needs of a state that included all of Italy and owned vast lands of the Mediterranean.

The system of government in the Roman Republic from the very beginning was dual - it was based on two poorly compatible principles: on the one hand, the widespread use of self-government and direct democracy, on the other, the preservation of the dominance of the hereditary aristocracy, from which the Senate was formed (de facto - the highest authority). power in the state). In principle, in Rome during the republic there was a well-thought-out and quite effective system of checks and balances, which, as a rule, did not allow either the Senate or other administrative institutions to monopolize power and at the same time established clear and clear rules of the game. However, it lost its force when Rome became the center of a huge empire with numerous subjects, and its population, a significant proportion of which was a destructive lumpen stratum, numbered in the hundreds of thousands of people.

Direct democracy simply could not work with such a large population, and the Romans did not think of representative democracy. The masses became a crowd that could be easily manipulated. Elections became a competition of purses - candidates for government positions (and almost all of them in the Roman Republic were elected) spent huge amounts of money on gifts and bribing voters. Moreover, it was possible to count on covering expenses only if one got to the highest levels of power, for which it was necessary to go through all the career steps, and there were obviously fewer such lucrative positions than the number of ambitious people willing to take them. Intrigues within the ruling elite turned into a fierce struggle between parties recruiting followers from among the declassed elements. Sometimes necessary decisions were pushed through with the help of armed force, while others were canceled with reference to heavenly signs.

Civil wars of unprecedented severity befell Rome. In the 80s BC. The Italian cities allies of Rome rebelled, dissatisfied with their secondary position. Through a series of bloody battles, the Romans put out this fire, and residents of the union cities received full citizenship, but immediately the struggle of parties split the republic itself. Their leaders - Sulla and Marius (and after his death in 84 BC - Cinna) - had already openly turned their weapons against each other, and the victors dealt with the vanquished, using the mechanism of executions, confiscations and exiles. In 82, Sulla, who won the battle, received dictatorial powers with the sanction of the popular assembly.

One of the victims of this war almost became young Julius Caesar, a native of an old noble family, connected by family ties with the leaders of the losing party (his aunt was married to Marius, and he himself married Cinna’s daughter). Only the intercession of his relatives before the dictator helped him stay alive, but the career of a priest, for which Caesar was prepared from childhood, was interrupted at the very beginning. To avoid arrest and execution, young Caesar, forced to flee Rome, violated the ban imposed on the priests of Jupiter, according to which they were not allowed to leave the city.

The beginning of Caesar's political activity

It is obvious that Caesar began his political career as the leader of a democracy. According to Mommsen, Caesar, as the head of the popular party, “held its banner high for thirty years, never changing or hiding his convictions; he remained a democrat even when he became a monarch.” However, Caesar's main support was still the army.

“Democracy,” writes Mommsen, “has already been striving for a number of years to transfer the highest magistracy into the hands of one of its adherents, in order to thereby acquire its own military strength.” Relying on the army, Caesar managed to achieve fame and wealth and seize power in the state.

The popularity of Caesar, a talented strategist and generous commander, was extraordinary among the legions. Mommsen's opinion that the military machine in Rome did not serve any party, but its commander, seems fair. That is why, the historian believes, Caesar matured “the fatal plan to put this military machine at the service of his ideals and to create through violence the civil society that seemed to his mental gaze; he wanted to introduce the army into the sphere of the civil state and subordinate it to the civil state.”

According to Plutarch, Caesar instilled courage and love of glory in his soldiers by “the fact that he generously distributed honors and gifts.” He convinced the soldiers that the captured wealth “he does not collect for his own luxury,” but “keeps this wealth as a reward for military merit,” “distributes it to the most distinguished of the soldiers.”

Suetonius testifies: “When frightening rumors about the enemy spread, he did not deny or minimize the enemy forces to encourage the soldiers, but, on the contrary, exaggerated them with his own inventions.”

“He did not always notice the soldiers’ misdeeds and did not always punish them properly. He pursued and punished fugitives and rebels cruelly.” “With all this, he achieved rare devotion and courage from the soldiers.” The centurions offered him their savings, “the soldiers promised to serve him voluntarily, without pay or rations.”

There were also mutinies among his troops, says Suetonius. "Caesar never yielded to the rebels, but always resolutely went against them." “When the soldiers of the tenth legion with violent threats demanded dismissal and rewards, Caesar without hesitation went to the soldiers and gave them dismissal.” But when the commander addressed them “Citizens!” (instead of the usual “Warriors!”), this changed the mood of the soldiers, and they voluntarily followed Caesar to Africa, where the war was going on. “But even here he punished all the main rebels, reducing their promised share of booty and land by a third.”

There are known riots of legionnaires in 48 and 47. BC. In 48 BC, in Spain, the rebels never returned to Caesar, they joined other commanders, and in 45 BC. (in the civil war) fought against Caesar. In 47 BC. Caesar decided to get rid of the rebels: he sent many to dangerous posts - to death.

The power of Julius Caesar

Over the long period of his political activity, Julius Caesar clearly understood that one of the main evils causing the serious illness of the Roman political system, is the instability, impotence and purely urban character of the executive power, the selfish and narrow party and class character of the power of the Senate.

From the early moments of his career, he openly and definitely struggled with both. And in the era of the Catiline conspiracy, and in the era of the extraordinary powers of Pompey, and in the era of the triumvirate, Caesar consciously pursued the idea of ​​​​centralization of power and the need to destroy the prestige and importance of the Senate. Individuality, as far as one can judge, did not seem necessary to him: the agrarian commission, the triumvirate, then the duumvirate with Pompey, to which Julius Caesar clung so tenaciously, show that he was not against collegiality or the division of power.

It is impossible to think that all these forms were for him only a political necessity. With the death of Pompey, Caesar effectively remained the sole leader of the state; the power of the Senate was broken and power was concentrated in one hand, as it once was in the hands of Sulla. In order to carry out all the plans that Caesar had in mind, his power had to be as strong as possible, as unconstrained as possible, as complete as possible, but at the same time, at least at first, it should not formally go beyond the framework of the constitution. The most natural thing (since the constitution did not know a ready-made form of monarchical power and treated royal power with horror and disgust) was to combine in one person powers of an ordinary and extraordinary nature around one center.

The consulate, weakened by the entire evolution of Rome, could not be such a center: a magistracy was needed, not subject to intercession and veto of the tribunes, combining military and civil functions, not limited by collegiality. The only magistracy of this kind was the dictatorship. Its inconvenience compared to the form invented by Pompey - the combination of a sole consulate with a proconsulate - was that it was too vague and, while giving everything in general, did not give anything in particular. Its extraordinaryness and urgency could be eliminated, as Sulla did, by pointing out its permanence (dictator pegrètuus), while the uncertainty of powers - which Sulla did not take into account, since he saw in the dictatorship only a temporary means for carrying out his reforms - was eliminated only through the above connection .

Dictatorship as a basis, and next to this a series of special powers, are, therefore, the framework within which Julius Caesar wanted to place and placed his power. Within these limits, his power developed as follows.

In 49 (year of the beginning civil war) during his stay in Spain, the people, at the suggestion of praetor Lepidus, elect him dictator. Returning to Rome, Caesar passed several laws, assembled a comitia, at which he was elected consul for the second time (in 48), and abandoned the dictatorship.

The next year 48 (October-November) he received dictatorship for the 2nd time, in 47. In the same year, after the victory over Pompey, during his absence he received a number of powers: in addition to the dictatorship - a consulate for 5 years (from 47 g) and tribunician power, that is, the right to sit together with the tribunes and carry out investigations with them - in addition, the right to name to the people their candidate for magistracy, with the exception of plebeian ones, the right to distribute provinces without drawing lots to former praetors and the right to declare war and make peace. Caesar's representative this year in Rome is his magister quitum - assistant to the dictator M. Antony, in whose hands, despite the existence of April) for the third time, and consul; Second Consuls, all power is concentrated.

In 46, Caesar was also a dictator (finally Lepidus was consul and magister equitum. This year, after the African War, his powers expanded significantly. He was elected dictator for 10 years and at the same time the head of morals (praefectus morum), with unlimited powers. Moreover, he receives the right to be the first to vote in the Senate and occupy a special seat in it, between the seats of both consuls. At the same time, his right to recommend candidates for magistrates to the people was confirmed, which was tantamount to the right to appoint them.

In 45 he was dictator for the 4th time and at the same time consul; his assistant was the same Lepidus. After the Spanish War (January 44), he was elected dictator for life and consul for 10 years. He refused the latter, as well as, probably, the 5-year consulate last year. The immunity of the tribunes is added to the tribunician power; the right to appoint magistrates and pro-magistrates is extended by the right to appoint consuls, distribute provinces among proconsuls and appoint plebeian magistrates. In the same year, Caesar was given exclusive authority to dispose of the army and money of the state.

Finally, in the same year 44, he was granted lifelong censorship and all his orders were approved in advance by the Senate and the people. In this way, Caesar became a sovereign monarch, remaining within the limits of constitutional forms. All aspects of the life of the state were concentrated in his hands. He disposed of the army and provinces through his agents - pro-magistrates appointed by him, who were made magistrates only on his recommendation. The movable and immovable property of the community was in his hands as a lifelong censor and by virtue of special powers. The Senate was finally removed from financial management. The activity of the tribunes was paralyzed by his participation in the meetings of their collegium and the tribunician power and tribunician sacrosanctitas granted to him. And yet he was not a colleague of the tribunes; having their power, he did not have their name. Since he recommended them to the people, he was the highest authority in relation to them. He disposes of the Senate arbitrarily both as its chairman (for which he mainly needed the consulate), and as the first to answer the question of the presiding officer: since the opinion of the almighty dictator was known, it is unlikely that any of the senators would dare to contradict him .

Finally, the spiritual life of Rome was in his hands, since already at the beginning of his career he was elected great pontiff and now the power of the censor and the leadership of morals were added to this. Caesar did not have special powers that would give him judicial power, but the consulate, the censorship, and the pontificate had judicial functions. Moreover, we also hear about constant court negotiations at Caesar’s home, mainly on issues of a political nature.

Caesar sought to give the newly created power a new name: this was the honorary cry with which the army greeted the winner - imperator. Julius Caesar put this name at the head of his name and title, replacing his personal name Guy with it. With this he gave expression not only to the breadth of his power, his imperium, but also to the fact that from now on he leaves the ranks of ordinary people, replacing his name with a designation of his power and at the same time eliminating from it the indication of belonging to one family: the head of state cannot be called like any other Roman S. Iulius Caesar - he is Imp (erator) Caesar p (ater) p (atriae) dict (ator) pegr (etuus), as his title says in the inscriptions and on coins.

Foreign policy. Roman Empire at the end of the reign of Julius Caesar

The guiding idea foreign policy Caesar was the creation of a strong and integral state, with natural, if possible, borders. Caesar pursued this idea in the north, south, and east.

His wars in Gaul, Germany and Britain were caused by the need he realized to push the border of Rome to the ocean on one side, to the Rhine, at least on the other. His plan for a campaign against the Getae and Dacians proves that the Danube border lay within the limits of his plans. Within the border that united Greece and Italy by land, Greco-Roman culture was to reign; the countries between the Danube and Italy and Greece were supposed to be the same buffer against the peoples of the north and east as the Gauls were against the Germans.

Caesar's policy in the East is closely related to this. Death overtook him on the eve of the campaign to Parthia. His eastern policy, including the actual annexation of Egypt to the Roman state, was aimed at rounding out the Roman Empire in the East. The only serious opponent of Rome here were the Parthians; their affair with Crassus showed that they had a broad expansive policy in mind. The revival of the Persian kingdom ran counter to the objectives of Rome, the successor to the monarchy of Alexander, and threatened to undermine the economic well-being of the state, which rested entirely on the factory, money-laden East. A decisive victory over the Parthians would have made Caesar, in the eyes of the East, the direct successor of Alexander the Great, the legitimate monarch.

Finally, in Africa, Yu. Caesar continued a purely colonial policy. Africa had no political significance; Its economic importance, as a country capable of producing huge quantities of natural products, depended to a large extent on regular administration, stopping the raids of nomadic tribes and re-establishing the best harbor in northern Africa, the natural center of the province and the central point for exchange with Italy - Carthage. The division of the country into two provinces satisfied the first two requests, the final restoration of Carthage satisfied the third.

Reforms of Julius Caesar

In all reform activities Caesar clearly points out two main ideas. One is the need to unite the Roman state into one whole, the need to smooth out the difference between the citizen-master and the provincial-slave, to smooth out the differences between nationalities; the other, closely related to the first, is the streamlining of administration, close communication between the state and its subjects, the elimination of intermediaries, and a strong central government. Both of these ideas are reflected in all of Caesar’s reforms, despite the fact that he carried them out quickly and hastily, trying to take advantage of the short periods of his stay in Rome. Because of this, the sequence of individual measures is random; Caesar each time took on what seemed most necessary to him, and only a comparison of everything he did, regardless of chronology, makes it possible to grasp the essence of his reforms and notice a harmonious system in their implementation.

Caesar's unifying tendencies were reflected primarily in his policy towards parties among the ruling classes. His policy of mercy towards his opponents, with the exception of irreconcilable ones, his desire to attract everyone to public life, without distinction of party or mood, his admission of his former opponents among his close associates, undoubtedly testifies to the desire to merge all differences of opinion about his personality and his regime . This unifying policy explains the widespread trust in everyone, which was the reason for his death.

The unifying trend is also clearly evident in relation to Italy. One of Caesar's laws concerning the regulation of certain parts of municipal life in Italy has reached us. True, it is now impossible to assert that this law was the general municipal law of Yu. Caesar (lex Iulia municipalis), but it is still certain that it immediately supplemented the statutes of individual Italian communities for all municipalities and served as a corrective for all of them. On the other hand, the combination in the law of norms regulating the urban life of Rome and municipal norms, and the significant likelihood that the norms of urban improvement of Rome were mandatory for municipalities, clearly indicates a tendency to reduce Rome to municipalities, to elevate municipalities to Rome, which from now on should was only the first of the Italian cities, the seat of central power and a model for all similar centers of life. A general municipal law for all of Italy with local differences was unthinkable, but some general norms were desirable and useful and clearly indicated that, in the end, Italy and its cities represent one whole united with Rome.

Evaluation of Julius Caesar's management system

Caesar's work remained unfinished, and this must be kept in mind when considering reforms in the field of lawmaking and government. One of the sources gives an assessment of everything that was done, but perhaps it would be correct to single out from the whole list of measures taken by Caesar those that were subsequently of great importance and indicated that Caesar had a keen sense of the problems of the empire and knew how to solve them.

The allied war led to the extension of the right of Roman citizenship to the territory of Italy up to the Po River (now Padus). All that remained was to grant this right to the inhabitants of Transpadan Italy, to establish a unified system of local administration and to create representative institutions. As a result, the interests of all Italian citizens will be represented in the government of Rome by at least several votes. Caesar never reached a final understanding of the importance of this step, like other statesmen of antiquity. But the first measure to establish control over Italy was to grant civil rights to the inhabitants of Transpadania, whose claims Caesar consistently defended. In 45 BC. he enforced the Lex Iulia Municipalis (Julius' law on municipalities), a piece of legislation, some important fragments of which are written on two bronze tablets found at Heraclea, near Tarentum.

This law also applies to the law enforcement and sanitary conditions of Rome. Based on this, Mommsen argued that the assertion that Caesar intended to reduce the status of Rome to a municipal city was incorrect. It is unlikely that this was the case; Caesar did not make any far-reaching changes in the management of the capital. They were made later by Augustus. But the presence of the mentioned articles in the Lex Iulia Municipalis can be considered as an amendment to the bill. The law stipulates the structure of local senates; their members had to be at least thirty years old and perform military service. People sentenced to punishment for various crimes, insolvents or those who discredited themselves by immoral behavior did not have the right to be elected senators. The law obliged local magistrates to conduct a census at the same time as in Rome, and within sixty days to send the census data to the capital. Existing excerpts from the law say little about the decentralization of government functions, but from the Lex Rubria (Rubrian law), which was written for the transpadan areas, whose inhabitants Caesar gave the right to Roman citizenship (at the same time it must be remembered that Cisalpine Gaul remained a province until 42 BC), we can conclude that municipal magistrates retained the right to act independently in many cases.

However, Caesar was dissatisfied with the unified system of local authorities that took shape in Italy. He was the first to carry out large-scale colonization of lands that extended beyond the sea. This began with the people's tribunes Tiberius and Gaius Gracchus. As consul, in 59 BC. Caesar established veteran colonies in Campania, enacting the Lex Iulia Agraria (Julian Agrarian Law), and even established rules for the founding of such settlements.

Having become dictator, he created numerous colonies in both the eastern and western provinces, in particular in Corinth and Carthage. Explaining this policy of Caesar, Mommsen emphasized that “the dominance of the urban communities of Rome on the shores of the Mediterranean Sea was coming to an end,” and said that the first step of the “new Mediterranean state” was “to atone for the two gross violations of the law that this urban community committed over civilization." However, we cannot agree with this point of view. The sites for the founding of Caesar's colonies were chosen based on the location of trade routes, and the idea that the citizens of Rome should cease to occupy a dominant position in the Mediterranean basin could not occur to the dictator. Many residents of the colonies were veterans who fought under Caesar. The majority also consisted of the urban proletariat. There is a document establishing a colony at Urso in southern Spain. This colony was called Colonia Iulia Genetiva Urbanorum. The penultimate word in the name comes from Venus the Mother, the ancestor of the house of Julia, the last word indicates that the colonists came from ordinary townspeople. Accordingly, for municipalities, freedom at birth is not a necessary condition, as in Italy.

By founding colonies, Caesar spread Roman civilization to them. During the Republic, it existed only within the borders of the Apennine Peninsula. Lack of time prevented Caesar from implementing other projects, such as digging a canal across the Isthmian (Corinthian) Isthmus. The purpose of this plan was to establish trade and communication between all Roman dominions. Caesar's contemporaries said that before his death, the dictator planned to restore the empire within its natural borders and was going to start a war with the Parthian kingdom. If victorious, the Roman army would reach the Euphrates.

Among other acts of Caesar, one should highlight the decision to ensure that the empire was governed in the true sense of the word and was no longer exploited by the rulers. The dictator exercised strict control over his governors (legati), who, due to military subordination, were responsible to him for the administration of their provinces



Gaius Julius Caesar (lat. Gaius Iulius Caesar). Born July 12 or 13, 100 BC. e. - died March 15, 44 BC. e. Ancient Roman statesman and politician, commander, writer. Consul of 59, 48, 46, 45 and 44 BC. e., dictator 49, 48-47 and 46-44 BC. e., Pontifex Maximus from 63 BC. e.

Gaius Julius Caesar was born into the ancient patrician Julian family.

In the V-IV centuries BC. e. Julia played a significant role in the life of Rome. Among the representatives of the family came, in particular, one dictator, one master of cavalry (deputy dictator) and one member of the college of decemvirs, who developed the laws of the Ten Tables - the original version of the famous laws of the Twelve Tables.

Like most families with an ancient history, the Julias had a common myth about their origins. They traced their lineage to the goddess Venus through Aeneas. The mythical version of the origin of the Julians was already well known by 200 BC. e., and Cato the Elder recorded a version about the etymology of the family name Yuliev. In his opinion, the first bearer of this name, Yul, received his nickname from the Greek word “ἴουλος” (fluff, the first hair on the cheeks and chin).

Almost all Julias in the V-IV centuries BC. e. wore the cognomen Yul, who was probably originally the only one in their family. The branch of the Julius Caesars most certainly descended from the Julius Iuli, although the links between them are unknown.

The first known Caesar was a praetor in 208 BC. e., mentioned by Titus Livy.

The etymology of the cognomen "Caesar" is not known with certainty and was forgotten already in the Roman era. Aelius Spartian, one of the authors of the lives of the Augustans, recorded four versions that existed by the 4th century AD. e.: “The most learned and educated people believe that the first one who was so named received this name from the name of the elephant (which in the language of the Moors is called caesai), which he killed in battle; [or] because he was born from a dead mother and was cut out from her womb; or because he came out of his mother’s womb with long hair; or because he had such brilliant gray-blue eyes, which do not exist in people".

Until now, the reliable etymology of the name is unclear, but more often the origin of cognomen is assumed to be from the Etruscan language (aisar - god; The Roman names Cesius, Caesonius and Caesennius have a similar origin).

By the beginning of the 1st century BC. e. Two branches of the Julius Caesars were known in Rome. They were closely related to each other, but not clearly established. Two branches were recorded in different tribes, and by the 80s BC. e. they also had a completely opposite political orientation, focusing on two warring politicians.

The future dictator's closest relatives were guided by Gaius Maria (Julia, Gaius's aunt, became his wife), and the Caesars from another branch supported Sulla. Moreover, the latter branch played a greater role in public life than the one to which Guy belonged. Guy's relatives on the side of his mother and grandmother could not boast of kinship with the gods, but they all belonged to the elite of Roman society - the nobility. Caesar's mother, Aurelia Cotta, belonged to the wealthy and influential plebeian family of the Aurelians. The relatives of Guy's grandmother, Marcia, traced their line back to the fourth Roman king, Ancus Marcius.

Caesar's date of birth remains a matter of debate among researchers. Sources' evidence on this issue varies. Indirect indications from most ancient authors allow us to date the birth of the dictator to 100 BC. BC, although Eutropius mentions that at the time of the Battle of Munda (March 17, 45 BC) he was 56 years old. In two important systematic sources about the life of the dictator - his biography of authorship and - the beginning of the text with stories about the circumstances of his birth has not been preserved.

The reason for the discrepancies in historiography was, however, the discrepancy between the timing of Caesar's master's degrees and the known practice: Caesar held all the master's degrees earlier than the normal sequence (cursus honorum) by about two years.

Because of this, Theodor Mommsen proposed to consider the date of birth of Caesar as 102 BC. e. Since the beginning of the 20th century, other options for solving the discrepancy began to be proposed. Guy's birthday is also causing debate - July 12 or 13. The fourth day before the Ides quintile (July 12) is mentioned by Macrobius in his Saturnalia. Dio Cassius, however, says that after the death of the dictator, the date of his birth was moved from July 13th to July 12th by a special decree of the second triumvirate. Thus, there is no consensus on the date of birth of Caesar. The year of his birth is most often recognized as 100 BC. e. (in France it is more often dated to 101 BC, as suggested by Jerome Carcopino). The dictator's birthday is equally often considered to be July 12 or 13.

The house where Caesar grew up was in the Subura area of ​​Rome., who had a reputation for trouble. As a child, he studied Greek, literature, and rhetoric at home. Practiced physical exercise, swimming, horse riding. Among the teachers of young Guy, the great rhetorician Gniphon, who was also one of Cicero’s teachers, is famous.

Around 85 BC. e. Caesar lost his father: according to Pliny the Elder, he died bending down to put on his shoes. After the death of his father, Caesar, who had undergone the initiation rite, actually headed the entire Julian family, since all his closest male relatives older than him had died. Soon Guy became engaged to Cossucia, a girl from a wealthy family from the equestrian class (according to another version, they managed to get married).

In the mid-80s BC. e. Cinna nominated Caesar to the honorary position of Flaminus of Jupiter. This priest was bound by many sacred restrictions, which seriously limited the possibilities of pursuing master's degrees. To take office, he first needed to marry a girl from a patrician family according to the ancient rite of confarreatio, and Cinna offered his daughter to Guy Cornelia. Young Julius agreed, although he had to break off his engagement to Cossucia.

However, Caesar's accession to office is questioned. According to Lily Ross Taylor, the Pontifex Maximus Quintus Mucius Scaevola (the enemy of Marius and Cinna) refused to perform the inauguration ceremony for Guy. Ernst Badian, however, believes that Caesar was nevertheless inaugurated. As a rule, Caesar's appointment is considered in historiography as an insurmountable obstacle to his further political career. However, there is also an opposite point of view: occupying such an honorable position was a good opportunity to strengthen the authority of the ancient family for this branch of the Caesars, not all of whose representatives achieved the highest magistracy of consul.

Soon after his wedding to Cornelia, Cinna was killed by mutinous soldiers, and the following year a civil war began, in which Caesar probably did not participate. With the establishment of the dictatorship of Lucius Cornelius Sulla and the beginning of proscriptions, Caesar's life was in danger: the dictator did not spare political opponents and personal enemies, and Gaius turned out to be the nephew of Gaius Marius and the son-in-law of Cinna. Sulla demanded that Caesar divorce his wife, which was not a unique case of proof of loyalty, but he refused to do so.

In the end, Sulla added Caesar's name to the proscription list, and he was forced to leave Rome. Sources report that Caesar hid for a long time, distributing bribes to the Sullans who were looking for him, but these stories are implausible. In the meantime, Guy's influential relatives in Rome managed to obtain a pardon for Caesar. An additional circumstance that softened the dictator was Caesar’s origins from the patrician class, representatives of which the conservative Sulla never executed.

Soon Caesar left Italy and joined the retinue of Marcus Minucius Terma, governor of the province of Asia. The name of Caesar was well known in this province: about ten years ago his father was its governor. Guy became one of the contubernals of Terme - the children of senators and young horsemen who studied military affairs and provincial government under the supervision of the current magistrate.

First, Therm entrusted the young patrician with negotiations with the king of Bithynia, Nicomedes IV. Caesar managed to convince the king to place part of his fleet at the disposal of Therma so that the governor could capture the city of Mytilene on Lesbos, which did not recognize the results of the First Mithridatic War and resisted the Romans.

Guy's stay with the Bithynian king subsequently became the source of many rumors about their sexual relationship. After successfully completing this assignment, Therm sent troops against Mytilene, and the Romans soon took the city. After the battle, Caesar was awarded the civil crown (lat. corona civica) - an honorary military award, which was awarded for saving the life of a Roman citizen. After the capture of Mytilene, the campaign in Lesbos ended. Soon Termus resigned, and Caesar went to Cilicia to its governor Publius Servilius Vatia, who was organizing a military campaign against the pirates. However, when in 78 BC. e. News came from Italy about the death of Sulla, Caesar immediately returned to Rome.

In 78 BC. e. Consul Marcus Aemilius Lepidus tried to raise a rebellion among the Italians in order to repeal the laws of Sulla. According to Suetonius, Lepidus invited Caesar to join the rebellion, but Gaius refused. In 77 BC. e. Caesar brought the Sullan Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella to trial on charges of extortion during his governorship in Macedonia. Dolabella was acquitted after major court speakers came out in his support. The indictment delivered by Caesar turned out to be so successful that it was distributed in handwritten copies for a long time. The following year, Gaius began the prosecution of another Sullan, Gaius Antonius Hybrida, but he requested protection from the tribunes of the people, and the trial did not take place.

Soon after the failure of the trial of Anthony, Caesar went to improve his oratory skills in Rhodes with the famous rhetorician Apollonius Molon, Cicero's mentor.

During Caesar's journey, he was captured by pirates who had long traded in the Eastern Mediterranean. He was held on the small island of Farmakussa (Farmakonisi) in the Dodecanese archipelago. The pirates demanded a large ransom of 50 talents (300 thousand Roman denarii). Plutarch’s version that Caesar, on his own initiative, increased the ransom amount from 20 talents to 50 is certainly implausible.

Ancient authors colorfully describe Guy's stay on the island: he allegedly joked with the kidnappers and recited to them poems of his own composition. After the ambassadors of the cities of Asia ransomed Caesar, he immediately equipped a squadron to capture the pirates themselves, which he managed to do. Having captured his captors, Guy asked the new governor of Asia, Mark Yunk, to judge and punish them, but he refused.

After this, Guy himself organized the execution of the pirates - they were crucified on crosses.

Suetonius adds some details of the execution as an illustration of Caesar's gentle character: “He swore to the pirates who had him captive that they would die on the cross, but when he captured them, he ordered them to be stabbed first and only then crucified.”.

During his repeated stay in the East, Caesar once again visited the Bithynian king Nicomedes. He also participated at the very beginning of the Third Mithridatic War at the head of a separate auxiliary detachment, but soon left the combat zone and returned to Rome around 74 BC. e. The following year he was co-opted to the priestly college of pontiffs in place of his deceased uncle Gaius Aurelius Cotta.

Soon Caesar wins election to military tribune. Exact date his tribunate is unknown: 73 is often suggested, but a date of 72 or 71 BC is more likely. e. What Caesar did during this period is not known for certain. It is suggested that Caesar may have been involved in suppressing the rebellion of Spartacus- if not in combat, then at least in training recruits. It is also suggested that it was during the suppression of the uprising that Caesar became close friends with Marcus Licinius Crassus, who in the future played a significant role in Guy’s career.

At the beginning of 69 BC. e. Cornelia, Caesar's wife, and his aunt Julia die almost simultaneously. At their funeral, Guy made two speeches that attracted the attention of his contemporaries.

Firstly, public speeches in memory of dead women were practiced only from the end of the 2nd century BC. e., but in them they usually remembered elderly matrons, but not young women. Secondly, in a speech in honor of his aunt, he recalled her marriage to Gaius Marius and showed the people his wax bust. Probably, Julia's funeral was the first public display of the general's image since the beginning of Sulla's dictatorship, when Maria was effectively forgotten.

Same year Caesar becomes quaestor, which guarantees him a seat in the Senate. Caesar performed the duties of a quaestor in the province of Further Spain. The details of his mission are unknown, although the quaestor in the province usually dealt with financial matters. Apparently, Guy accompanied the governor of Gaius Antistius Vetus on trips around the province, carrying out his instructions. It was probably during the quaestor that he met Lucius Cornelius Balbus, who later became Caesar's closest ally.

Soon after returning from the province, Guy married Pompey, the granddaughter of Sulla (she was not a close relative of the influential Gnaeus Pompey the Great in those years). At the same time, Caesar began to openly lean toward supporting Gnaeus Pompey; in particular, he was perhaps the only senator who supported Gabinius’ law on transferring emergency powers to Gnaeus in the fight against pirates.

Caesar also supported the law of Manilius granting a new command to Pompey, although here he was no longer alone.

In 66 BC. e. Caesar became the caretaker of the Appian Way and repaired it at his own expense (according to another version, he repaired the road in 65 BC, being an aedile). In those years, the main creditor of the young politician, who did not skimp on spending, was probably Crassus.

In 66 BC. e. Caesar was elected curule aedile for the next year, whose duties included organizing urban construction, transport, trade, daily life in Rome and ceremonial events (usually at his own expense). In April 65 BC. e. new aedile organized and held the Megalesian Games, and in September the Roman Games, which surprised even the most experienced Romans with their luxury. Caesar shared the costs of both events equally with his colleague Marcus Calpurnius Bibulus, but only Gaius received all the glory.

Initially, Caesar planned to show a record number of gladiators at the Roman Games (according to another version, gladiatorial fights were organized by him in memory of his father), but the Senate, fearing a rebellion by many armed slaves, issued a special decree prohibiting one person from bringing more than a certain number of gladiators to Rome . Julius obeyed the restrictions on the number of gladiators, but gave each of them silver armor, thanks to which his gladiatorial fights were still remembered by the Romans.

In addition, the aedile overcame the resistance of conservative senators and restored all the trophies of Gaius Marius, the display of which had been prohibited by Sulla.

In 64 BC. e. Caesar headed a permanent criminal court in cases of robbery accompanied by murder (quaestio de sicariis). In the courts under his chairmanship, many participants in Sulla's proscriptions were convicted, although this dictator passed a law that did not allow criminal prosecution against them. Despite Caesar's active efforts to convict the dictator's accomplices, the active perpetrator of the murders of the proscribed Lucius Sergius Catilina was completely acquitted and was able to nominate his candidacy for consul the next year. The initiator of a significant part of the trials, however, was Caesar's opponent, Marcus Porcius Cato the Younger.

Caesar - Pontifex Maximus:

At the beginning of 63 BC. e. Pontifex Maximus Quintus Caecilius Metellus Pius died, and the highest position in the system of Roman religious magistrates became vacant. At the end of the 80s BC. e. Lucius Cornelius Sulla restored the ancient custom of co-opting high priests by the College of Pontiffs, but shortly before new elections, Titus Labienus restored the procedure for electing the Pontifex Maximus by voting in 17 tribes out of 35.

Caesar put forward his candidacy. Alternative candidates were Quintus Lutatius Catulus Capitolinus and Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus. Ancient historians report numerous bribes during elections, due to which Guy's debts grew greatly. Since the tribes that voted were determined by lot just before the elections, Caesar was forced to bribe representatives of all 35 tribes. Guy's creditors were sympathetic to spending on a prestigious but unprofitable position: his successful election testified to his popularity in the run-up to the elections of praetors and consuls.

According to legend, leaving home before the announcement of the results, he told his mother “Either I will return as pontiff, or I will not return at all.”; according to another version: “Today, mother, you will see your son either as a high priest or as an exile.”. The vote took place, according to various versions, either on March 6, or at the end of the year, and Caesar won. According to Suetonius, his advantage over his opponents turned out to be enormous.

Julius's election as Pontifex Maximus for life brought him into the spotlight and almost certainly guaranteed a successful political career. Unlike the flamen of Jupiter, the great pontiff could participate in both civil and military activities without serious sacred restrictions.

Although people who were former consuls (consuls) were usually elected great pontiffs, there were also cases in Roman history when relatively young people occupied this honorary position. Thus, Caesar could not be accused of becoming great pontiff only because of exorbitant ambitions. Immediately after his election, Caesar took advantage of the right to live in the state house of the great pontiff and moved from Subura to the very center of the city, on the Sacred Road.

Caesar and the Catiline conspiracy:

In 65 BC. e., according to some contradictory evidence from ancient historians, Caesar participated in the unsuccessful conspiracy of Lucius Sergius Catilina to seize power. However, the question of the “first conspiracy of Catiline” remains problematic. Evidence from sources varies, which gives some researchers grounds to completely deny the existence of the “first conspiracy.”

Rumors about Caesar's participation in Catiline's first conspiracy, if it existed, were spread by opponents of Crassus and Caesar already in the 50s BC. e. and are probably not true. Richard Billows believes that the spread of rumors about the "first conspiracy" was beneficial to Cicero, and then to Caesar's political opponents.

In 63 BC. e., after his failure in the elections of consuls, Catiline made a new, more famous attempt to seize power. Caesar's possible involvement in the conspiracy was discussed back in ancient times, but reliable evidence was never provided. During the culmination of the crisis, Catulus and Piso demanded that Cicero arrest Caesar for complicity in the conspiracy, but to no avail. According to Adrian Goldsworthy, by 63 BC. e. Caesar could count on legal means of occupying new positions and was not interested in participating in the conspiracy.

December 3, 63 BC e. Cicero presented evidence of the dangers of the conspiracy, and the next day a number of the conspirators were declared state criminals. On December 5, the Senate, meeting in the Temple of Concord, discussed a preventive measure for the conspirators: in emergency circumstances, it was decided to act without court approval. Decimus Junius Silanus, elected consul the following year, advocated the death penalty, a punishment applied to Roman citizens in the rarest of cases. His proposal was met with approval.

Caesar spoke next.

His speech in the Senate, recorded by Sallust, is certainly based on the actual speech of Julius. Sallust's version of the speech contains both a common appeal to Roman customs and traditions and an unusual proposal to sentence the conspirators to life imprisonment - a punishment almost never used in Rome - with confiscation of property.

After Caesar, Cicero spoke, objecting to Guy's proposal (an edited recording of his fourth speech against Catiline has survived). However, after the speech of the current consul, many were still inclined to Julius’s proposal, but Marcus Porcius Cato the Younger took the floor and resolutely opposed Caesar’s initiative. Cato also hinted at Caesar's involvement in the conspiracy and reproached the wavering senators for their lack of determination, after which the Senate voted to put the conspirators to death. Since the meeting on December 5 was held with open doors, people listening attentively outside reacted violently to Cato's speech, including his hint of Caesar's connections with the conspirators, and after the end of the meeting they saw off Guy with threats.

Barely taking office as praetor on January 1, 62 BC. e., Caesar took advantage of the magistrate’s right of legislative initiative and proposed that the people’s assembly transfer the authority to restore the Temple of Jupiter Capitoline from Quintus Lutatius Catulus to Gnaeus Pompey. Catulus took about 15 years to restore this temple and almost completed the work, but if this proposal had been accepted, the dedicatory inscription on the pediment of this most important sanctuary of Rome would have mentioned the name of Pompey, and not Catulus, an influential opponent of Caesar.

Guy also accused Catulus of embezzling public funds and demanded an account of his expenses. After protest from the senators, the praetor withdrew his bill.

When on January 3, the tribune Quintus Caecilius Metellus Nepos proposed recalling Pompey to Rome to defeat Catiline’s troops, Guy supported this proposal, although the conspirators’ troops were already surrounded and doomed to defeat. Apparently, Nepos, Gnaeus's brother-in-law, hoped with his proposal to give Pompey the opportunity to arrive in Italy without disbanding his troops. After a mass brawl provoked by Nepos in the forum, the determined Senate passed an emergency law removing Nepos and Caesar from office, but a few days later Guy was reinstated.

In the fall, at the trial of Lucius Vettius, a member of the Catiline conspiracy, the accused told the judge that he had evidence of Caesar’s involvement in the conspiracy - his letter to Catiline. In addition, during interrogation in the Senate, witness Quintus Curius stated that he had heard personally from Catiline about Caesar’s participation in preparing the rebellion. However, Cicero, at the request of Guy, testified that he told the consul everything he knew about the conspiracy, and thereby deprived Curius of the reward for information and refuted his testimony. Caesar acted very decisively against the first accuser, arresting both Vettius (he did not appear at the next meeting and did not present evidence of the praetor’s guilt) and the judge Novius Niger (he accepted a denunciation of the senior magistrate).

In December 62 BC. e. In Caesar's new house, a festival was held in honor of the Good Goddess with the participation of only women, but it was interrupted after a man, Publius Clodius Pulcher, secretly entered the house. Senators, having learned about the incident, decided to consider the incident sacrilege, and also demanded that the holiday be held anew and the perpetrators punished. The latter meant inevitable publicity of Caesar's personal life, since there were rumors that Clodius arrived at Caesar's house in a woman's dress precisely for his wife.

Without waiting for trial, The pontiff divorced Pompeia Sulla. The trial took place the following year, and Clodius was acquitted because Caesar refused to testify against him. Adrian Goldsworthy believes that Pompeii really had an affair with Clodius, but Caesar still did not dare to testify against the politician who was quickly gaining popularity.

In addition, the majority of judges on the panel voted with signs with illegible inscriptions, not wanting to incur the wrath of Clodius' supporters and opponents. During the trial, when Caesar was asked why he divorced his wife if he knew nothing about what happened, he allegedly replied that Caesar's wife should be above suspicion(various sources cite various options this phrase. According to Michael Grant, Caesar meant that the wife of the great pontiff - the high priest of Rome - should be above suspicion. The British historian points to another possible reason that accelerated the divorce - the absence of children after several years of marriage.

At the beginning of 61 BC. e. Caesar was supposed to go to the province of Further Spain, the westernmost in the Roman Republic, to rule it as propraetor, but numerous creditors ensured that he did not leave Rome without paying off his huge debts. Nevertheless, Crassus vouched for Caesar with the sum of 830 talents, although this huge sum was unlikely to cover all the governor’s debts. Thanks to Crassus, Guy went to the provinces even before the end of the trial of Clodius. On his way to Spain, Caesar allegedly said, passing through a remote village, that “I would rather be first here than second in Rome”(according to another version, this phrase was uttered on the way from Spain to Rome).

By the time of Caesar's arrival, there was great dissatisfaction with Roman power and large debts in the underdeveloped northern and northeastern parts of the province. Caesar immediately recruited a local militia to subdue the dissatisfied regions, which was presented as an extermination of the bandits.

According to Dio Cassius, thanks to the military campaign, Caesar hoped to equal Pompey with his victories, although it was possible to establish a lasting peace without military action.

Having at his disposal 30 cohorts (about 12 thousand soldiers), he approached the Herminian Mountains (the modern Serra da Estrela ridge) and demanded that the local tribes settle on the flat territory in order to deprive them of the opportunity to use their fortifications in the mountains in the event of an uprising.

Dio Cassius believes that Caesar hoped for a refusal from the very beginning, since he hoped to use this answer as a motive for an attack. After the mountain tribes refused to submit, the governor's troops attacked them and forced them to retreat to the Atlantic Ocean, from where the mountain tribes sailed to the Berlenga Islands. Caesar ordered several detachments to cross to the islands on small rafts, but the Lusitanians killed the entire Roman landing force.

After this failure, Guy summoned a fleet from Hades and with its help transported large forces to the islands. While the commander was conquering the mountainous Lusitanians on the Atlantic coast, the neighbors of the expelled tribes began preparing to repel a possible attack by the governor. All summer, the propraetor subjugated the scattered Lusitanians, storming a number of settlements and winning one fairly large battle. Soon, Caesar left the province and headed to Brigancia (modern La Coruña), quickly capturing the city and its surroundings. In the end, the troops declared him emperor, which in the terminology of the mid-1st century BC. e. meant recognition as a victorious commander. Even then, Caesar showed himself to be a decisive commander, capable of quickly moving his troops.

Having completed his campaign, Caesar turned to solving the daily problems of the province. His energetic activity in the administrative field was manifested in the revision of taxation and in the analysis of court cases. In particular, the governor abolished the tax imposed as punishment for the Lusitanians' support of Quintus Sertorius in the recent war. In addition, it ruled that creditors could not recover from debtors more than two-thirds of their annual income.

In the difficult situation with the repayment of loans and interest by residents of the province, such a measure turned out to be beneficial for both borrowers and creditors, since Caesar still confirmed the need for mandatory repayment of all debts. Finally, Caesar may have banned human sacrifice, which was practiced in the province.

Some sources claim that the governor extorted money from wealthy residents of the province and robbed neutral tribes, but this evidence is probably based only on rumors. Richard Billows believes that if Caesar had actually openly plundered the province, he would have been immediately brought to justice by his political opponents upon his return to Rome. In fact, there was no prosecution or even hints of its beginning, which at least indicates Caesar’s caution.

Roman legislation of the 1st century BC. e. provided for the responsibility of the governor for extortion, but did not establish clear boundaries between a gift and a bribe, and therefore sufficiently careful actions could not be qualified as bribery.

Caesar could count on substantial gifts, since the inhabitants of the province (especially the rich south) saw in the young aristocrat a potentially influential patron - a defender of their interests in Rome.

Masinta's extremely vigorous defense showed them that Caesar would do anything to protect his clients. Apparently, Caesar received the greatest income precisely from civil activities in the southern part of the province, since the main military operations were carried out in the impoverished northern and northeastern regions of Further Spain, in which it was hardly possible to get rich. After becoming governor of the province, Caesar significantly improved his financial situation, and creditors no longer bothered him. Guy probably did not pay off all his debts, but he proved that he was able to repay his loans by taking on new positions. As a result, the creditors could temporarily stop disturbing Caesar, counting on a new, more profitable appointment, which Guy’s opponents subsequently tried to use.

At the beginning of 60 BC. e. Caesar decided to return to Rome, without waiting for his successor. The early termination of the governor's powers with the delegation of powers to a junior magistrate (probably a quaestor) was considered unusual, but was sometimes practiced.

Having received reports of Caesar's victories, the Senate considered him worthy of triumph. In addition to this honorable celebration, in the summer of 60 BC. e. Caesar hoped to take part in the election of consuls the following year, since he had reached the minimum age for holding a new position and had completed all previous magistrates in the cursus honorum system.

However, the candidate for triumph was not allowed to cross the sacred boundaries of the city (pomerium) before the event began, and personal presence in Rome was required to register a candidate for consul. Since the election date had already been set, Caesar asked the senators to grant him the right to register in absentia. There was already a precedent for such a decision in Roman history: in 71 BC. e. The Senate allowed Gnaeus Pompey, who was also preparing a triumph, to put forward his candidacy.

Caesar's opponents were not in the mood to meet him halfway. By presenting Guy with a choice between triumph and consulate, they may have hoped that Caesar would choose triumph, hoping that Guy's creditors would not wait another year, but would demand their money immediately. However, Caesar had another reason not to postpone participation in the elections until the next year: election to a new position in “his year” (Latin suo anno), that is, in the first year when this was permissible by law, was considered especially honorable.

At the last meeting of the Senate before the elections, when it was still possible to pass a special resolution, Cato took the floor and spoke all day, until the very end of the meeting. Thus, Caesar did not receive special permission, and he entered the city, choosing to take up a new position and abandoning triumph.

By the summer of 60 BC. e. Caesar agreed to cooperate with the rich and educated, but little-known Roman Roman Lucius Lucceus, who also put forward his candidacy. According to Suetonius, "they agreed that Lucceus would promise his own money to the centuries on behalf of both." The Roman author mentions that his rival Bibulus also bribed voters with the approval of the senators: his father-in-law Cato called this “bribery in the interests of the state.” According to the results of the elections of consuls for 59 BC. e. became Caesar and Bibulus.

Around this time, Caesar entered into secret negotiations with Pompey and Crassus to create a political alliance: in exchange for the support of Gaius by two of the most powerful and wealthy Romans, the new consul undertook to pass several laws in their interests that had previously been blocked by the Senate.

The fact is that Pompey, who returned from the Third Mithridatic War back in 62 BC. e., has not yet achieved the ratification of all orders made in the eastern provinces. He also could not overcome the resistance of the Senate on the issue of granting land plots to veterans of his army. Crassus also had reasons for dissatisfaction with the Senate, who defended the interests of the publicans (tax farmers), who unsuccessfully asked to reduce the amount of taxation for the province of Asia.

By uniting around Caesar, both politicians hoped to overcome the resistance of the senators and pass laws beneficial to themselves. It is unclear what Caesar received from the alliance. Undoubtedly, he benefited from the very rapprochement with two influential politicians and their equally high-ranking friends, clients and relatives.

There is a version that when organizing the triumvirate, Caesar hatched plans to seize power with its help(a similar point of view was shared, in particular, by Theodor Mommsen and Jerome Carcopino).

Despite the fact that Pompey and Crassus had long been at odds and even interfered with the implementation of laws in each other's interests, Caesar managed to reconcile them. Suetonius claims that Caesar first entered into an alliance with Pompey, but Christian Meyer believes that he first agreed to cooperate with Crassus, who was closer to him. It is possible that it was planned to include a fourth member - Cicero - in the political union.

The union of three politicians is currently known as the first triumvirate (Latin triumviratus - “union of three husbands”), but this term arose by analogy with the later second triumvirate, whose members were officially called triumvirs.

The exact date of the creation of the triumvirate is unknown, which is a consequence of its secret nature. Following the contradictory versions of ancient writers, modern historians also offer different versions: July-August 60 BC. e., the period shortly before or shortly after the elections, after the elections or 59 BC. e. (in final form).

At the very beginning of the consulate, Guy ordered the daily publication of the minutes of the meetings of the Senate and the National Assembly: apparently, this was done so that citizens could monitor the actions of politicians.

Caesar, on behalf of the Roman Republic, recognized Ptolemy XII Auletes as pharaoh of Egypt, which was tantamount to renouncing claims to Egypt using the will (probably forged) of Ptolemy XI Alexander II, widely known in Rome. According to this document, Egypt was to come under the rule of Rome, just as, according to the will of Attalus III, the Kingdom of Pergamum was transferred to the Roman Republic. Ancient historians report that the issue was settled for a huge bribe, which was shared among the triumvirs.

Despite significant support for Caesar's initiatives at the beginning of the year, by the end of 59 BC. e. the popularity of the triumvirs fell sharply.

By the beginning of Caesar's proconsulate, the Romans controlled the southern part of the territory of modern France, where the province of Narbonese Gaul was formed. At the end of March 58 BC. e. Guy arrived in Genava (modern Geneva), where he entered into negotiations with the leaders of the Celtic tribe of the Helvetii, who began to move due to the onslaught of the Germans. Caesar managed to prevent the Helvetii from entering the territory of the Roman Republic, and after they entered the lands of the Aedui tribe allied with the Romans, Guy pursued and defeated them. In the same year, he defeated the troops of the German leader Ariovistus, who was trying to gain a foothold in the Gallic lands of the left bank of the Rhine.

In 57 BC. e. Caesar, without a formal cause of war, attacked the Belgae tribes in northeastern Gaul and defeated them at the battles of Axon and Sabis. The commander's legate, Publius Licinius Crassus, bloodlessly subjugated the lands in the lower Loire. However, the next year the Gauls conquered by Crassus united against the Roman conquest. Caesar was forced to divide his forces between Titus Labienus, who was supposed to subjugate the Treveri tribe in Belgica, Publius Crassus (who was entrusted with the conquest of Aquitaine) and Quintus Titurius Sabinus, who suppressed the peripheral tribes of the rebels. Decimus Junius Brutus Albinus began building a fleet on the Loire capable of fighting the coastal tribes, and Caesar himself went to Luca, where the triumvirs met and discussed current issues.

Returning to his troops, Caesar led an attack on the rebel Gauls. Gaius and Sabinus captured all the rebel settlements, and Decimus Brutus destroyed their fleet in a naval battle.

In 55 BC. e. the commander defeated the German tribes that crossed the Rhine. He then crossed to the right bank of the river using a 400-meter bridge built near the camp "castellum apud confluentes" (modern Koblenz) in just ten days.

The Roman army did not stay in Germany (during the retreat, the first bridge in history across the Rhine was destroyed), and already at the end of August Caesar undertook a reconnaissance expedition to Britain - the first trip to this island in Roman history. However, due to insufficient preparation, within a month he had to return to the continent.

Next summer Caesar led a new expedition to Britain, however, the Celtic tribes on the island continuously retreated, weakening the enemy in small clashes, and Caesar was forced to conclude a truce, which allowed him to report victory to Rome. After his return, Caesar divided his troops between eight camps concentrated in northern Gaul.

At the end of the year, the Belgian tribes rebelled against the Romans and almost simultaneously attacked several of their wintering grounds. The Belgas managed to lure the XIV Legion and five more cohorts (about 6-8 thousand soldiers) from the fortified camp and kill them in an ambush. Caesar managed to lift the siege from the camp of Quintus Tullius Cicero, the brother of the orator, after which the Belgae abandoned the attack on Labienus' camp. In 53 BC. e. Guy carried out punitive expeditions against the Belgian tribes, and in the summer he made a second trip to Germany, again building (and again destroying during the retreat) a bridge across the Rhine. Faced with a shortage of troops, Caesar asked Pompey for one of his legions, to which Gnaeus agreed.

At the beginning of 52 BC. e. Most of the Gallic tribes united to fight the Romans. The leader of the rebels was Vercingetorix. Since the Gauls cut off Caesar in Narbonese Gaul from the bulk of his troops in the north, the commander, with the help of a deceptive maneuver, lured Vercingetorix to the lands of his native Arverni tribe, and he himself united with the main troops. The Romans took several fortified Gallic cities, but were defeated when attempting to storm Gergovia. In the end, Caesar managed to block Vercingetorix in the well-fortified fortress of Alesia and begin a siege.

The Gallic commander called all the Gallic tribes for help and tried to lift the Roman siege after their arrival. A fierce battle broke out in the most poorly defended area of ​​the fortifications of the siege camp, in which the Romans won victory with some difficulty. The next day Vercingetorix surrendered to Caesar, and the rebellion as a whole was over. In 51 and 50 BC. e. Caesar and his legates completed the conquest of distant tribes and individual groups of rebels. By the end of Caesar's proconsulate, all of Gaul was subordinate to Rome.

Throughout his stay in Gaul, the commander was aware of the events taking place in Rome and often intervened in them. This became possible due to the fact that two of Caesar’s confidants remained in the capital, with whom he constantly corresponded - Gaius Oppius and Lucius Cornelius Balbus. They distributed bribes to the magistrates and carried out his other orders from the commander.

In Gaul, several legates served under Caesar, who later played a significant role in Roman history - Mark Antony, Titus Labienus, Lucius Munatius Plancus, Gaius Trebonius and others.

Consuls 56 BC e. Gnaeus Cornelius Lentulus Marcellinus and Lucius Marcius Philippus were unkind to the triumvirs. Marcellinus prevented the implementation of laws by Caesar's supporters and, more importantly, managed to achieve the appointment of a successor to Caesar from among the not yet elected consuls for the next year. Thus, no later than March 1, 54 BC. e. Guy had to cede the province to his successor.

The most likely candidate to replace Caesar in Cisalpine Gaul was considered Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus, a staunch opponent of the triumvirate. In addition, Caesar's opponents hoped to take Narbonese Gaul from him. The first attempts to bring Caesar to court date back to this time, but failed due to the judicial immunity of the proconsul before the end of his powers.

In mid-April 56 BC. e. triumvirs gathered in Luka(modern Lucca; the city belonged to Cisalpine Gaul, which allowed Caesar to be present) to coordinate further actions.

They agreed that Pompey and Crassus would nominate their candidacies for consul the following year in order to prevent the election of opponents (in particular, Ahenobarbus). Since the outcome of the elections, held in full accordance with the law, was not obvious, the triumvirs decided to influence the elections by attracting legionnaires. Supporters of the triumvirs had to push for a postponement of the elections to the end of the year, and Caesar promised to send all his soldiers to participate in the vote. Once elected, Pompey and Crassus were to secure a five-year extension of Caesar's term in exchange for Caesarian support for the distribution of several other provinces in their favor.

In the spring of 55 BC. e. the new consuls fulfilled their obligations adopted at the meeting in Luca: Caesar extended his powers in all three provinces for five years. In addition, Pompey received control of Far and Near Spain for the same period, and Crassus received Syria. In May or June 55 BC. e. Cicero, who became close to the triumvirate, actively supported, and possibly initiated, a bill to compensate for the costs of maintaining Caesar's four new legions at public expense. This proposal was accepted. In exchange for Cicero's services to Caesar, the proconsul responded by including Quintus Tullius Cicero, the orator's brother, among his legates.

In August or September 54 BC. e. Julia, daughter of Caesar and wife of Pompey, died during childbirth. However, the death of Julia and the failure of attempts to conclude a new dynastic marriage did not have a decisive impact on the relationship between Pompey and Caesar, and for several more years the relationship between the two politicians remained quite good.

A much greater blow to the triumvirate and to all Roman politics was dealt by Death of Crassus at the Battle of Carrhae. Although Crassus was considered more of a “junior” triumvir, especially after Caesar’s successful conquests in Gaul, his wealth and influence smoothed over the contradictions between Pompey and Caesar.

At the beginning of 53 BC. e. Caesar asked Pompey for one of his legions to use in the Gallic War, and Gnaeus agreed. Caesar soon recruited two more legions to make up for the losses of his troops due to the Belgian uprising.

In 53-52 BC. e. the situation in Rome was extremely tense due to the struggle (often armed) between supporters of two demagogues - Clodius and Milo. The situation worsened significantly due to the murder of Clodius by the slave Milo in January 52 BC. e. By this time, elections of consuls had not been held, and in Rome there were calls to elect Pompey as consuls along with Caesar to restore order.

Caesar invited Pompey to organize a new dynastic marriage. According to his plan, Pompey was to marry Octavia the Younger, a relative of Caesar, and he himself intended to marry Pompeia, the daughter of Gnaeus. Pompey refused the offer, marrying after some time Cornelia Metella, the daughter of Caesar's longtime enemy Metellus Scipio. When it became clear that Caesar would not be able to return from Gaul to restore order in Rome, Cato (according to another version - Bibulus) proposed an emergency measure - the appointment of Gnaeus as consul without a colleague, which allowed him to make the most important decisions alone. However, the Senate probably viewed Pompey as a temporary coordinator to quell unrest, and not as a long-term ruler.

Soon after his appointment, the new consul initiated adoption of laws on violent acts (lex Pompeia de vi) and on electoral bribery (lex Pompeia de ambitu). In both cases, the wording of the laws was clarified to meet new requirements, stricter preventive measures were established, and court hearings in these cases had to be held under armed guard. Both decisions had retroactive effect. The law on bribery extended until 70 BC. e., and Caesar's supporters considered this decision a challenge to their patron.

At the same time, the tribunes of the people, with the approval of Pompey, passed a decree allowing Caesar to nominate his candidacy for consul while absent from Rome, which he failed to achieve in 60 BC. e. However, soon, at the proposal of the consul, laws on magistracy and provinces were adopted. Among the provisions of the first decree was a ban on seeking office in the absence of the candidate in Rome.

The new legislation was not only directed against Caesar, but also came into conflict with the recent decree of the tribunes. However, soon Pompey, who allegedly forgot to make an exception for Caesar, ordered the addition of a clause to the law on magistracy on the possibility of special permission to apply without being present in the capital, but did this after the law was approved.

Pompey's decrees brought uncertainty into Caesar's future after the end of his proconsulship. It is unclear when he could nominate his candidacy for consul for the next year in accordance with special permission - in 50 or 49 BC. e.

Due to the fact that Gnaeus amended the law on magistrates after its approval, Caesar's opponents had the opportunity to protest the effect of this clarification and demand the mandatory presence of Caesar as a private citizen at the elections. Guy was seriously afraid that immediately after his arrival in Rome and the termination of his immunity, Caesar’s opponents, led by Cato, would bring him to trial.

Because Pompey's laws were retroactive, Gaius could be held accountable for his actions in 59 BC. e. and before. In addition, it was unclear whether Caesar's successor should be appointed under the old law or under the new one. If the priority of Pompey's decree was recognized, the successor could replace Caesar in the province as early as March 1, 49 BC. e., and it was supposed to be one of the consuls five years ago. However, since the second consul Appius Claudius Pulcher managed to receive an appointment to Cilicia, Gaius's successor was to be his irreconcilable opponent Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus.

Although Cato failed in this election of consuls, Marcus Claudius Marcellus, an enemy of Caesar, was elected. At the very beginning of the year Marcellus demanded that Caesar leave the province and disband all ten legions, citing the completion of active military operations after the capture of Alesia. However, the rebels continued to operate on the periphery of Gaul, and Marcellus’ colleague Servius Sulpicius Rufus refused to support this proposal. Pompey tried to maintain the appearance of neutrality, but his statements indicated a rapid cooling of relations with Caesar.

Consuls 50 BC e. after Cato refused to participate in the elections, Gaius Claudius Marcellus, Marcus’s cousin and comrade-in-arms, and Lucius Aemilius Paulus began to take part in the elections. The latter was not a staunch opponent of Caesar, and therefore Guy took advantage of his difficult financial situation and persuaded him to cooperate for a huge bribe of 1,500 talents (approximately 36 million sesterces, or slightly less than the annual tax revenues from conquered Gaul).

In addition, one of his longtime opponents, Gaius Scribonius Curio, unexpectedly went over to Caesar’s side. Later sources attribute this change of political position to another bribe comparable to the one received by Aemilius Paulus. It was Curio who used the tribunician veto to repeal the laws with which the senators tried to legalize the removal of Caesar. However, the tribune carefully concealed his defection. In their public speaking he positioned himself as an independent politician and defender of the interests of the people, and not Pompey or Caesar. In May 50 BC. e. The Senate, under the pretext of the Parthian threat, immediately recalled two legions from Caesar, including the one lent to him by Pompey.

As the end of the proconsul's powers drew near, Caesar and his Roman opponents began vigorous efforts to defend their position in accordance with their vision of legislation.

By 50 BC. e., when Caesar's break with Pompey became obvious, Caesar had significant support from the inhabitants of Rome and the population of Cisalpine Gaul, but among the nobles his influence was small and often relied on bribes.

Although the Senate as a whole was not inclined to trust Caesar, the idea of ​​​​a peaceful resolution of the dispute was supported by the majority of senators. Thus, 370 senators voted in support of Curio’s proposal on the need for the simultaneous disarmament of both commanders, and 22 or 25 voted against. However, Marcellus closed the meeting before the voting results were entered into the protocol. According to another version, the decision of the Senate was vetoed by the tribune Guy Furnius.

Other proposals were also made, although neither Caesar nor Pompey and his supporters were willing to give in. In particular, even before the elections of magistrates, Gnaeus suggested that Caesar return to Rome on November 13, 50 BC. e., surrendering proconsular powers and troops, so that on January 1, 49 BC. e. take up the post of consul. However, contemporaries noticed that Pompey clearly did not want reconciliation. Soon false rumors spread in Rome that Caesar had already crossed the borders of Italy and occupied Arimin, which meant the beginning of a civil war.

In 50 BC. e. Caesar managed to get Mark Antony and Quintus Cassius Longinus into the tribunes of the plebeians the following year, but his candidate for consul, Servius Sulpicius Galba, failed. Based on the voting results, staunch opponents of the proconsul were elected - Gaius Claudius Marcellus, the full namesake and cousin of the previous year's consul, as well as Lucius Cornelius Lentulus Cruz.

From the second half of the year Caesar begins to make persistent attempts to negotiate with the Senate, offering mutual concessions.

In particular, he agreed to renounce Narbonese Gaul and retain only two legions and two provinces - Cisalpine Gaul and Illyricum - subject to immunity and absentee participation in elections.

The senators refused to accept Caesar's proposal. In response, January 1, 49 BC. e. In Rome, Caesar’s letter was read, in which the proconsul’s determination to defend his right to absentee participation in the elections was already heard by all available means.

In response, the Senate decided that Caesar should be considered an enemy of the state if he did not resign and disband the troops by a certain date, but Antony and Longinus, who took office, vetoed it, and the resolution was not adopted. Several people, including Cicero, tried to mediate a reconciliation between the two generals, but their attempts were unsuccessful.

On January 7, at the initiative of a group of senators led by Cato, an emergency law (lat. senatusconsultum ultimum) was issued calling citizens to arms, which actually meant a complete refusal of negotiations. Troops began to gather in the city, and Antony and Longinus were made to understand that their safety could not be guaranteed.

Both tribunes and Curio, who had already surrendered his powers, immediately fled from Rome to Caesar’s camp - according to Appian, they left the city “at night, in a hired cart, disguised as slaves.”

On January 8 and 9, the senators decided to declare Caesar an enemy of the state if he did not resign. They also approved his successors - Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus and Marcus Considius Nonianus - transferring to them Cisalpine and Narbonese Gaul. They also announced the recruitment of troops.

Caesar, back in December 50 BC. e. summoned the VIII and XII legions from Narbonese Gaul, but by the beginning of January they had not yet arrived. Although the proconsul had only about 5 thousand soldiers of the XIII Legion and about 300 cavalry at his disposal, he decided to act.

After the arrival of the tribunes who had fled from Rome at Caesar's camp, the commander gathered the troops at his disposal and addressed them with a speech. In it, he informed the soldiers about the violation of the sacred rights of the tribunes and the reluctance of the senators to recognize his legal demands. The soldiers expressed full support for their commander, and he led them across the border river Rubicon(according to legend, before crossing the river, Caesar said the words “the die is cast” - a quote from Menander’s comedy).

However, Caesar did not move towards Rome. On January 17, after receiving news of the outbreak of war, Pompey tried to start negotiations, but they failed, and the commander sent his troops along the Adriatic coast. Most of the cities along the way did not even try to resist. Many supporters of the Senate retreated to Corfinium (modern Corfinio), where Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus was stationed.

Soon he had 30 cohorts, or 10-15 thousand soldiers, under his control. Due to the lack of a unified command (since Ahenobarbus had previously been appointed governor, Gnaeus had no authority to order him) Domitius found himself locked in Corfinia and cut off from Pompey's troops. After Caesar received reinforcements and the siege could not be lifted, Ahenobarbus decided to flee the city with only his friends. His soldiers became aware of the commander’s plans, after which the dissatisfied troops opened the gates of the city to Caesar and handed over Ahenobarbus and their other commanders to him.

Caesar annexed the troops stationed in Corfinia and the surrounding area to his army, and released Ahenobarbus and his comrades.

Upon learning of the surrender of Corfinius, Pompey began preparations for the evacuation of his supporters to Greece. Pompey counted on the support of the eastern provinces, where his influence had been great since the Third Mithridatic War. Due to a shortage of ships, Gnaeus had to transport his forces to Dyrrachium (or Epidamnus; modern Durres) in parts.

As a result, by the time Caesar arrived (March 9), not all of his soldiers had crossed over. After Gnaeus refused to negotiate, Gaius began a siege of the city and tried to block the narrow exit from the harbor of Brundisium, but on March 17, Pompey managed to leave the harbor and leave Italy with the remaining troops.

The rapid development of events in the first stage of the war took the population of Rome and Italy by surprise. Many residents of Italy supported Caesar, since they saw in him the successor of the work of Gaius Marius and hoped for his patronage. The Italians' support for Caesar greatly contributed to Caesar's success in the first stage of the civil war.

The attitude of the nobility towards Julius was mixed. The gentle treatment of commanders and soldiers in Corfinia was aimed at persuading both opponents and hesitant members of the nobility not to oppose Caesar.

Caesar's supporters Oppius and Balbus made every effort to present Caesar's actions to the entire republic as an act of outstanding mercy (lat. clementia). The principle of encouraging the neutrality of all those who waver also contributed to the pacification of Italy: “While Pompey declared his enemies all those who did not defend the republic, Caesar declared that he would consider those who abstained and did not join anyone as friends.”.

The widespread belief that the bulk of the senators fled Italy along with Pompey is not entirely true. It became famous thanks to Cicero, who subsequently substantiated the legitimacy of the “Senate in Exile” by the presence of ten consulars (former consuls) in its composition, but kept silent about the fact that there were at least fourteen of them left in Italy. More than half of the senators chose to remain neutral, holed up in their estates in Italy.

Caesar was supported by many young people from noble but poor aristocratic families, many representatives of the equestrian class, as well as various outcasts and adventurers.

Caesar was unable to immediately pursue Pompey into Greece because Gnaeus had requisitioned all available warships and transport ships. As a result, Guy decided to secure his rear by heading through Gaul, loyal to him, to Spain, where from 54 BC. e. There were Pompey's legates with seven legions.

Before leaving, Guy entrusted the leadership of Italy to Mark Antony, who received from him the powers of propraetor, and left the capital in the care of praetor Marcus Aemilius Lepidus and the senators. In dire need of money, Guy took possession of the remnants of the treasury. The tribune Lucius Caecilius Metellus tried to prevent him, but Caesar, according to legend, threatened to kill him, adding that it was “much more difficult for him to say than to do.”

In Narbonne Gaul, where all of Caesar's Gallic troops had gathered, Caesar encountered unexpected resistance from the richest city of Massilia (modern Marseille). Not wanting to linger halfway, Caesar left part of his troops to wage the siege.

By the beginning of the campaign in Spain, according to the Notes on the Civil War, the Pompeians Lucius Afranius and Marcus Petreius had approximately 40 thousand soldiers and 5 thousand cavalry against Caesar's approximately 30 thousand soldiers and 6 thousand horsemen.

Caesar's troops, with skillful maneuvers, drove the enemy out of Ilerda (modern Lleida/Lleida) into the hills, where it was impossible to find either food or water. On August 27, the entire Pompeian army surrendered to Caesar. Caesar sent all the soldiers of the enemy army home, and allowed those who wished to join his army. After the news of the capitulation of the Pompeians, most of the communities of Near Spain went over to Caesar's side.

Soon Guy went to Italy by land. At the walls of Massilia, Caesar received news of his appointment as dictator on the initiative of the praetor Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. In Rome, Caesar exercised his rights as a dictator and organized elections of magistrates for the following year.

Caesar himself and Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus were elected consuls; other positions went mainly to supporters of the dictator. In addition, Guy took advantage of his right of legislative initiative and passed a number of laws designed not only to mitigate the consequences of the war (for example, the law on loans), but also for the long term (providing full Roman citizenship to residents of individual cities and territories).

While Caesar was in Spain, Caesar's generals suffered defeat after defeat in Illyricum, Africa and the Adriatic Sea. However, Caesar was able to derive some benefit from Curio's defeat in Africa: it allowed him to claim that Pompey's situation had become so desperate that he was forced to call on the barbarians to help him. The unsuccessful actions of the legates on the Adriatic coast left Caesar with only one option for crossing to Greece - by sea.

Apparently, Caesar feared that Pompey would cross over to Italy in the spring, and therefore began preparations for the landing in the winter of 49-48 BC. e. However, this idea was considered risky due to the unfavorable season for navigation, the dominance of the Pompeians at sea and the lack of food for a large army in Epirus. In addition, Guy was unable to assemble a sufficient number of ships to cross the entire army.

Nevertheless, January 4 or 5, 48 BC. e. Caesar's fleet with about 20 thousand soldiers and 600 cavalry landed in Epirus, avoiding a meeting with the Pompeian fleet, led by Bibulus. Another part of Caesar's army, led by Mark Antony, managed to break into Greece only in April.

Immediately after the landing, Caesar sent envoys to Pompey with a proposal to conclude a truce, but at the same time began to capture cities on the coast, which discredited any attempts to negotiate an end to the war.

Skillfully maneuvering, Caesar, after uniting with Antony, managed to encircle the superior forces of Gnaeus on a coastal hill near Dyrrhachium and erect strong fortifications that were supposed to protect the camp and troops of Gaius from attacks both from the besieged and from outside. This siege is notable not only for the superiority of the besieged over the besiegers, but also for the hunger in the latter’s camp, in contrast to the normal supply situation for the besieged Pompey: according to Plutarch, by the summer Caesar’s soldiers were eating bread from roots. Gnaeus soon took advantage of his access to the coast and his advantage at sea, landing part of his troops at the weakest point of the enemy fortifications.

Caesar threw all his forces into repelling the attack, but in a battle known as the Battle of Dyrrhachium (around July 10), Pompey put his enemy to flight. For some reason, Pompey did not dare to strike a decisive blow against Caesar - either because of the advice of Labienus, or out of caution against the possible tricks of Gaius. After the battle, Caesar, according to Plutarch and Appian, said “Today victory would remain with the opponents if they had someone to defeat”.

Gathering his defeated troops, Caesar marched southeast to fertile Thessaly, where he was able to replenish food supplies. In Thessaly, Caesar was joined by two legions of troops that he had previously sent to Macedonia for auxiliary operations. However, Pompey's soldiers outnumbered Caesar's by approximately two to one (approximately 22 thousand versus approximately 47 thousand).

The opponents met at Farsal. Pompey for some time did not want to start a general battle in open terrain and decided to give battle to Caesar only under pressure from the senators. According to legend, on the day before the battle, senators confident of victory began to distribute magistracy among themselves. It is likely that Titus Labienus prepared the battle plan for Pompey, but Caesar was able to unravel the plans of the Pompeians and prepare countermeasures (after the battle, Gnaeus suspected that someone from his entourage had conveyed the plans to Caesar). On August 9, a decisive battle took place, the outcome of which was decided by Caesar’s counterattack on the right flank. In total, 15 thousand soldiers died in the battle, including 6 thousand Roman citizens. More than 20 thousand more Pompeians surrendered the day after the battle, and among them were many nobles, including Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus.

Soon after the battle Caesar set out in pursuit of Pompey, but Gnaeus disoriented his pursuer and went through Cyprus to Egypt. Only when Caesar was in the province of Asia did news of his enemy's new preparations reach him, and he went to Alexandria with one legion (probably the VI Iron).

Caesar arrived in Egypt a few days after the assassination of Pompey by the Egyptians. Initially, his stay in Egypt was prolonged due to unfavorable winds, and the dictator tried to take advantage of the opportunity to solve his urgent need for money. Guy hoped to recover from King Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator 10 million denarii of debts left by his father Ptolemy XII Auletes (a significant part of the debt was an incompletely paid bribe for non-recognition of the will of Ptolemy XI Alexander II).

For this purpose the commander intervened in the struggle of supporters of Ptolemy XIII and his sister Cleopatra. Initially, Caesar probably hoped to mediate the dispute between brother and sister in order to obtain the greatest benefit for himself and for the Roman state.

After Cleopatra secretly entered Caesar's camp (according to legend, the queen was taken to the palace wrapped in a carpet), Guy went over to her side. Those surrounded by Ptolemy decided to take advantage of the small number of Guy's troops to expel him from the country and overthrow Cleopatra. The majority of the inhabitants of Alexandria supported the king, and the general uprising against the Romans forced Caesar to lock himself in the royal quarter, putting his life in great danger.

During the battle with the Egyptians, a fire started that spread to the Library of Alexandria- the largest book collection of the ancient world. However, a large branch of the library in the Serapeum with copies of the scrolls was preserved, and most of the collection was soon restored.

In the winter, Caesar withdrew his troops from the besieged palace and, after uniting with arriving reinforcements, defeated the troops of Ptolemy’s supporters. After Gai's victory placed Cleopatra and the young Ptolemy XIV Theos Philopator II on the royal throne(Ptolemy XIII Theos Philopator drowned in the Nile after a battle with the Romans), who, according to tradition, ruled jointly.

Then the Roman commander spent several months with Cleopatra in Egypt, going up the Nile. Ancient authors considered this delay in the war to be caused by an affair with Cleopatra. It is known that the commander and queen were accompanied by Roman soldiers, so Caesar may have been simultaneously engaged in reconnaissance and a show of force to the Egyptians. Before leaving in July 47 BC. e. Caesar left three Roman legions to maintain order in Egypt. In the summer of the same year, Cleopatra's son Caesarion was born, and the dictator is often considered the father of the child.

While Caesar was in Egypt, supporters of the defeated Pompey gathered in Africa. After leaving Alexandria, Caesar headed not to the west, where his opponents concentrated their forces, but to the northeast. The fact is that after the death of Pompey, the population of the eastern provinces and the rulers of neighboring kingdoms tried to take advantage of the situation in their own interests: in particular, Pharnaces II, the son of Mithridates VI, relying on the remnants of the Pontic kingdom, which Pompey assigned to him, tried to restore the empire of his father, invading Roman lands.

Having settled urgent matters in Syria, Caesar arrived in Cilicia with a small force. There he united with the remnants of the troops of the defeated Gnaeus Domitius Calvin and with the ruler of Galatia, Deiotarus, who hoped to receive forgiveness for supporting Pompey. Guy met with Pharnaces at Zela, and on the third day defeated him. Caesar himself described this victory in three catchphrases: veni, vidi, vici (came, saw, conquered). After the victory over Pharnaces, Guy crossed to Greece, and from there to Italy. After his return, Caesar managed to restore the favor of several legions that had rebelled in Italy, making generous promises to them.

Having brought the legionaries into order, Caesar set out from Lilybaeum for Africa in December, again defying the unfavorable shipping conditions and sailing with only one legion of experienced troops. After transporting all the troops and organizing supplies, Caesar lured Metellus Scipio and the Numidian king Juba (the latter was once publicly humiliated by Gaius by pulling his beard during his trial) to battle in the vicinity of Thapsus.

April 6, 46 BC e. A decisive battle took place at Thapsus. Although in Notes on the African War the development of the battle is characterized as rapid and the nature of the victory as unconditional, Appian describes the battle as extremely difficult. In addition, Plutarch cites the version that Caesar did not participate in the battle due to an epileptic seizure.

Many commanders of Scipio's army fled from the battlefield, but contrary to the declared policy of mercy, they were caught up and executed on Caesar's orders. Marcus Petreius and Yuba committed suicide, but Titus Labienus, Gnaeus and Sextus Pompey fled to Spain, where they soon organized new hearth resistance to Caesar.

After the victory at Thapsus, Caesar moved north to the well-fortified Utica. The commandant of the city, Cato, was determined to hold the city, but the inhabitants of Utica were inclined to surrender to Caesar, and Cato disbanded the troops and helped everyone to leave the city. When Guy approached the walls of Utica, Mark committed suicide. After returning to the capital Caesar led four triumphal processions in a row - for victories over the Gauls, Egyptians, Pharnaces and Juba. However, the Romans understood that Caesar was partly celebrating victories over his compatriots.

Caesar's four triumphs did not end the civil war, since the situation in Spain remained tense: the abuses of the Caesarian governor of Further Spain, Quintus Cassius Longinus, provoked a rebellion.

After the arrival of the defeated Pompeians from Africa and their organization of a new center of resistance, the temporarily calmed Spaniards again opposed Caesar.

In November 46 BC. e. Guy decided to go to Spain personally to suppress the last center of open resistance. By this time, however, most of his troops had already been disbanded: there were only two legions of experienced soldiers in the ranks (V and X legions), all other available troops consisted of newcomers.

March 17, 45 BC e., soon after arriving in Spain, the opponents clashed in Battle of Munda. In the most difficult battle, Guy won. According to legend, after the battle Caesar declared that he “I have often fought for victory, but now for the first time I fought for life”.

At least 30 thousand Pompeian soldiers died, and Labienus was among those killed on the battlefield; Caesar's losses were significantly smaller. The dictator retreated from his traditional practice of mercy (clementia): Gnaeus Pompey the Younger, who fled from the battlefield, was overtaken and killed, and his head was delivered to Caesar. Sextus Pompey barely managed to escape and even survived the dictator. After the victory at Munda, Caesar celebrated his fifth triumph, and it was the first in Roman history to celebrate the victory of the Romans over the Romans.

In the autumn of 48 BC. e., after receiving news of the death of Pompey, Caesar's colleague in the consulate Publius Servilius Vatia Isauricus organized the second appointment of Guy as dictator in absentia. This time the justification for the appointment of an extraordinary magistrate was probably the conduct of the war (the formulation used was rei gerundae causa). The chief of the cavalry was Mark Antony, whom Caesar sent to govern Italy during his stay in Egypt. According to sources, Guy received unlimited power for one year instead of the usual six months for a dictator.

In the autumn of 47 BC. e. The dictatorship expired, but Caesar retained his proconsular powers, and on January 1, 46 BC. e. took up the post of consul. According to the testimony of Dio Cassius, Caesar also received the powers of a plebeian tribune (tribunicia potestas), but some researchers (in particular, H. Scullard) doubt the veracity of this message.

After the Battle of Thapsus, Caesar became dictator for the third time.

The new appointment had a number of unusual features: firstly, there was no formal justification for holding the position, and secondly, the position was for ten years, although it was apparently to be renewed annually. In addition to unlimited power, Guy's supporters organized his election to the special position of "prefect of morals" (praefectus morum or praefectus moribus) for three years, which effectively gave him the powers of a censor.

Since Caesar was already 54 years old at the time of his appointment, the ten-year magistracy of the dictator, taking into account the low average life expectancy in the ancient era, was actually considered as lifelong.

In 45 BC. e. Guy, in addition to the powers of the dictator, became a consul without a colleague, which did not allow the collegiality inherent in this magistracy to be realized, and only in October did he refuse the consulate, appointing two successors in his place - consul-suffects.

In the same year, Guy expanded his name to include the title "emperor", used to designate a victorious commander (from now on, his full name became Imperator Gaius Iulius Caesar).

Finally, at the beginning of 44 BC. e. (no later than February 15) Caesar received another appointment to the post of dictator. This time he received an extraordinary magistracy for life (lat. dictator perpetuus).

Caesar began to make new use of the dictator's magistracy, which had previously been used in exceptional cases. Traditionally, the dictator was appointed for six months, and in the event of a more rapid resolution of the crisis situation, he was expected to resign early. Less than forty years ago, Sulla first awarded the magistracy for an indefinite period, but after the reforms were carried out, he resigned the position and died as a private citizen.

Caesar was the first to directly declare his intention to rule indefinitely. However, in reality, Caesar led the republic by the right of the strong, relying on troops and numerous supporters, and his positions only gave the appearance of legitimacy.

The cult of personality and the sacralization of Caesar:

Caesar strengthened his power not only by occupying new positions, reforming the political system and suppressing the opposition, but also by sacralizing his personality.

First of all, the legend about the relationship of the Julius Caesar family with the goddess Venus was actively used: in accordance with ancient ideas, the descendants of the gods stood out from the general mass of people, and Caesar’s claims as a direct descendant were even more serious.

Wanting to publicly show his connection with the gods, which went beyond simple kinship, the dictator erected a luxuriously decorated temple of Venus in the Forum. It was dedicated not to Venus the Victorious (lat. Venus Victrix), as Caesar originally intended (this was his vow given before the battle of Pharsalus), but to Venus the Progenitor (lat. Venus Genetrix) - the legendary ancestor and Julia (in a straight line) , and at the same time all the Romans. He founded a magnificent cult in the temple and gave it one of the most important places in the hierarchy of Roman organized rituals.

The dictator also organized magnificent games at the temple and ordered them to be held in the future, appointing for this purpose young men from noble families, one of whom was Gaius Octavius. Even earlier, on some coins minted by monetaries from among the representatives of the Julian family, an image of the god Mars was placed, to whom the family also tried to trace their family, although less actively.

Caesar planned to build a temple of Mars in Rome, intended to popularize the lesser-known legend of descent from this god. However, the dictator did not have time to implement this idea, and Octavian put it into practice. Caesar received some of the attributes of sacred power through his position as great pontiff.

From 63 BC e. Caesar not only enjoyed numerous priestly powers, but also enjoyed enormous prestige.

Even before Caesar's first triumph, the Senate decided to grant him a number of honors, which began preparations for the sacralization of the dictator's personality and the establishment of a new state cult. The successful implementation of this decision by the Senate was due to the flight of the majority of adherents of Roman traditions with Pompey and the dominance of “new people” in the Senate. In particular, in the temple of Jupiter Capitolinus the dictator's chariot and his statue in the image of the conqueror of the world were installed, and thus the most important temple of Rome became dedicated to both Jupiter and Caesar.

The most important source reporting this honor, Cassius Dio, used the Greek word for "demigod" (ancient Greek ἡμίθεος - hemitheos), which was usually applied to mythological heroes born from the connection of gods and people. However, the dictator did not accept this honor: soon, but not immediately, he canceled this decree.

The news of the dictator's victory at the Battle of Munda reached Rome on the evening of April 20, 45 BC. e., on the eve of the Parilium holiday - according to legend, it was on this day (April 21) that Romulus founded Rome. The organizers decided to hold games the next day in honor of the winner, as if he were the founder of the city. In addition, in Rome it was decided to build a sanctuary of Liberty in honor of Caesar the Liberator (lat. Liberator). The Senate also decided to install on the rostral tribune in the forum, from where the magistrates usually made speeches, a statue of Caesar, facing the people listening to the speakers.

Soon new steps were taken towards the deification of Caesar. First, after the dictator's return to Rome in May, his statue was placed in the temple of Quirinus, a deity identified with Romulus, the mythical founder of Rome. The dedicatory inscription on the statue read: “To the undefeated god.”

At state expense, construction began on a new house for Caesar, and its shape had a significant resemblance to temples - the houses of the gods. At circus performances, an image of Caesar made of gold and ivory was among the images of the gods. Finally, in 45 BC. e. coins were minted with the image of Caesar in profile, although before this, images of living people had never been placed on coins.

At the beginning of 44 BC. e. The Senate, and then the People's Assembly, inspired by Mark Antony, issued a series of decrees granting Caesar new privileges and giving him new honors. Among them - title of father of the fatherland (lat. parens patriae) with the right to place it on coins, the introduction of an oath by the genius of Caesar for the Romans, turning his birthday into a holiday with sacrifices, renaming the month of Quintile to July, introducing a mandatory oath to preserve all his laws for magistrates taking office.

In addition, annual sacrifices were introduced for the safety of Caesar, one tribe was renamed in his honor, and all temples in Rome and Italy were required to install his statues. A college of Julian Luperci (younger priests; lat. Luperci Iuliani) was created, and in Rome the construction of the Temple of Concord was to begin in honor of the pacification of the state. Eventually, the Senate authorized the start of construction of the Temple of Caesar and his Mercy (Latin: Clementia) and created a new priestly position specifically for organizing the worship of the new deity, appointing Mark Antony to it.

The creation of a special position of a priest of the highest level for the veneration of Gaius put him on a par with Jupiter, Mars and Quirinus. The other gods of the Roman pantheon were served by priests and colleges of a lower level. The deification of Caesar completed the creation of a new state cult. Lily Ross Taylor believes that in early 44 BC. e. The Senate decided to consider Caesar a god. His deification was finally confirmed posthumously by a special decree of the Second Triumvirate in 42 BC. e.

By 44 BC. e. Caesar also received a number of honors that brought him closer to the Roman kings. So, he constantly wore the clothes of a triumphant and a laurel wreath, which also created the impression of constant triumph.

Suetonius, however, notes that Caesar enjoyed the right to constantly wear a laurel wreath due to baldness.

In addition, he refused to rise from his throne when senators approached him. The latter circumstance caused particular indignation in Rome, since only absolute monarchs enjoyed such privileges. Nevertheless, he stubbornly refused the old Roman title of king (lat. rex), although this could be a consequence of calculation.

February 15, 44 BC e. At the Lupercalia festival, he rejected the diadem proposed by Mark Antony - a symbol of monarchical power. After his assassination, rumors spread that at the meeting on March 15 it was planned to declare him king, but only for the provinces - territories outside Rome and Italy.

Perhaps Caesar did not want the restoration of royal power in its Roman form, since this presupposed the election of a new ruler after the death of the previous one. Lily Ross Taylor has suggested that Guy wanted to create a system in which the transfer of power would be carried out by inheritance, as was customary in Hellenistic monarchies.

In the process of sacralizing his power, the dictator clearly focused on having adopted the traditions of governance from the conquered Persians. In addition, the first steps towards the deification of the Macedonian ruler appeared after a visit to Egypt, as in the case of Caesar, where both rulers could personally become acquainted with monumental evidence of the sacralization of the power of the pharaohs, although Guy was much more cautious in announcing the final deification.

It is possible that for Caesarion, born of Cleopatra - the last living heiress of Alexander's empire - Caesar had further plans that he did not have time to implement. However, the paternity of the dictator was questioned back in ancient times, and Caesarion was never declared the official heir of Gaius.

Reforms of Julius Caesar:

Using a combination of various powers and without encountering open opposition in the Senate and the People's Assembly, Caesar carried out a series of reforms in 49-44 BC. e.

The details of the dictator's activities are known mainly from the works of authors of the Empire era, and there is very little evidence from contemporaries on this issue.

In the sphere of government, Caesar increased the number of most colleges of curule (senior) magistrates. The number of praetors elected annually increased from 8 first to 14 and then to 16. The number of quaestors was increased by 20 people annually, and aediles by 2 due to the aediles ceriales, who controlled the supply of grain.

The number of augurs, pontiffs and members of the college of quindecemvirs also increased.

The dictator arrogated to himself the right to nominate candidates for major positions: at first this was done unofficially, and then he officially received such a right. He removed undesirable candidates from elections. Guy often promoted people of humble origin to high positions: it is known that more than half of the consuls elected under the patronage of Caesar were “new people” (homines novi), among whose ancestors there were no consuls.

The dictator also replenished the Senate, which was empty as a result of civil strife in the 50s BC. e. and civil war. In total, Caesar revised the lists of senators three times and, according to Dio Cassius, eventually brought their number to 900 people, but this number was hardly accurate and constant. Many of the people included in the Senate did not belong to the old Roman families, but to the provincial aristocracy and the equestrian class. Contemporaries, however, spread rumors that the children of freedmen and barbarians were included among the senators.

The dictator revised the system of staffing judges for permanent criminal courts (quaestiones perpetuae), giving half the seats to senators and equestrians instead of the previous third of the seats, which became possible after the exclusion of the Erary Tribunes from the collegiums.

Caesar also legislatively replenished the ranks of the patrician class, whose representatives traditionally occupied some important positions in the religious sphere. Most of the patrician families had already died out, and by the middle of the 1st century BC. e. there are only a little more than ten of them left.

Dissolved many public colleges (collegiae), a considerable part of which in the 50s BC. e. used to recruit armed supporters of demagogues and to bribe voters at the polls.

Assessments of Caesar's political reforms vary. A number of researchers see in his political activities the actual establishment of a “democratic monarchy” (Theodor Mommsen), a Hellenistic or Eastern type monarchy (Robert Yurievich Wipper, Eduard Meyer) or the Roman version of an absolute monarchy (Matthias Geltzer, John Balsdon).

In an effort to gain the support of the inhabitants of the provinces, Caesar actively granted them various benefits and privileges. Residents of several cities (in particular, Gades and Olisipo) received full Roman citizenship, and some others (Vienna, Tolosa, Avennio and others) received Latin law.

At the same time, only the cities of the western provinces received Roman citizenship, while the Hellenized policies of Greece and Asia Minor did not receive such privileges, and the Greek cities of Sicily received only Latin law.

Doctors and teachers of the liberal arts living in Rome received full Roman citizenship.

The dictator reduced taxes from Narbonese Gaul, and also transferred the provinces of Asia and Sicily to direct payment of taxes, bypassing tax farmers. The dictator made adjustments to the process of distributing free bread, which took up a significant portion of state budget expenditures. Firstly, the lists of recipients of free bread were halved - from more than 300 to 150 thousand (this reduction is sometimes associated with a drop in the total population due to civil wars). Secondly, some of the previous recipients were able to move to new colonies in various provinces of the Roman state. Caesar's demobilized soldiers also received land plots and did not create additional burden on the grain distribution system.

Among other colonization measures, Caesar repopulated Carthage and Corinth, which had been destroyed simultaneously by the Romans in 146 BC. e. To solve the important task of increasing the number of people suitable for military service, Caesar took various measures to support fathers with many children.

In an effort to limit uncontrolled emigration in the provinces, Caesar forbade full residents of Rome and Italy between the ages of 20 and 40 from leaving the Apennines for more than three years in a row, and the children of senators could go to the provinces only as soldiers or members of the governor's retinue.

To replenish the budgets of urban communities, Caesar decided to return trade duties on imported goods to Italy.

Finally, to partially solve the problem of unemployment, the dictator decreed that at least a third of the shepherds in Italy should be recruited from free people, not slaves.

The task of reducing unemployment was also pursued by Caesar's extensive construction projects both in Rome and outside the capital. By 46 BC. e. The construction of the new Forum of Caesar, which began during the Gallic War, was completed (only the ruins of the temple of Venus the Progenitor, which was founded according to a vow made before the Battle of Pharsalus, have survived to this day). The dictator took it upon himself to rebuild the Senate building, which burned down in 52 BC. BC: Faustus Sulla, to whom the Senate had previously entrusted this mission, was killed during the civil war.

As punishment for a number of crimes, Caesar established exile, and also ordered the confiscation of half of the wealth of the rich.

He also issued new laws against luxury: the use of personal biers, pearl jewelry, and purple-dyed clothing was prohibited, in addition to which the trade in fine products was regulated and the luxury of tombstones was limited.

Guy also planned to create a large library in Rome on the model of Alexandria and Pergamon, entrusting the organization to the encyclopedist Marcus Terence Varro, but the death of the dictator upset these plans.

Finally, in 46 BC e. Caesar announced reform of the Roman calendar. Instead of the previous lunar calendar, a solar calendar was introduced, developed by the Alexandrian scientist Sosigenes and consisting of 365 days with one additional day every four years. However, to carry out the reform it was necessary to first bring the current calendar into line with astronomical time. The new calendar was used everywhere in Europe for sixteen centuries, until the development, on behalf of Pope Gregory XIII, of a slightly refined version of the calendar, called the Gregorian calendar.

Assassination of Julius Caesar:

At the beginning of 44 BC. e. In Rome, a conspiracy arose among the Roman nobles, dissatisfied with the autocracy of Caesar and fearing rumors about his impending naming him king. The masterminds of the conspiracy are considered to be Marcus Junius Brutus and Gaius Cassius Longinus. In addition to them, many other prominent persons were involved in the conspiracy - both Pompeians and supporters of Caesar.

The conspiracy that developed around Brutus, apparently, was not the first attempt to kill the dictator: the conspiracy of 46 BC is known, although without details. e. and preparations for the assassination attempt by Gaius Trebonius. At this time, Caesar was preparing for war with Parthia, and rumors spread in Rome about his impending appointment as king and about the transfer of the capital to Troy or Alexandria.

The implementation of the plans of the conspirators was scheduled for a meeting of the Senate in Pompey's curia near his theater on March 15 - the Ides of March according to Roman time. Ancient authors accompany the description of the events preceding the Ides of March with a list of various signs and indications that well-wishers tried to warn the dictator, but by coincidence he did not listen to them or did not believe their words.

After the meeting began, a group of conspirators gathered around Lucius Tillius Cimber, who asked Caesar for forgiveness for his brother, and another group stood behind Caesar. When Cimbri began to pull the toga from Caesar’s neck, signaling to the conspirators, Publius Servilius Casca, who was standing behind, struck the first blow to the dictator’s neck. Caesar fought back, but when he saw Marcus Brutus, he, according to legend, said, “And you, my child!” in Greek (ancient Greek καὶ σὺ τέκνον).

According to Plutarch, Guy fell silent at the sight of Brutus and stopped resisting. The same author notes that Caesar’s body accidentally ended up near the statue of Pompey standing in the room or was deliberately moved there by the conspirators themselves. A total of 23 wounds were found on Caesar's body.

After funeral games and several speeches, the crowd burned Caesar's corpse in the forum, using the benches and tables of market traders for the funeral pyre: “Some proposed to burn it in the Temple of Jupiter Capitolinus, others in the Curia of Pompey, when suddenly two unknown men appeared, belted with swords, waving darts, and set the building on fire with wax torches. Immediately the surrounding crowd began to drag dry brushwood, benches, judge's chairs, and everything that was brought as a gift into the fire. Then the flutists and actors began to tear off their triumphal clothes, worn for such a day, and, tearing them apart, threw them into the flames; the old legionnaires burned the weapons with which they decorated themselves for the funeral, and many women burned the headdresses that they were wearing, bullas and children’s dresses.”.

According to Caesar's will, each Roman received three hundred sesterces from the dictator, and the gardens over the Tiber were transferred to public use. The childless dictator unexpectedly adopted his great-nephew Gaius Octavius ​​and gave him three-quarters of his fortune. Octavius ​​changed his name to Gaius Julius Caesar, although he is better known in historiography as Octavian. Some Caesarians (notably Mark Antony) tried unsuccessfully to have Caesarion recognized as heir instead of Octavian. Subsequently, Antony and Octavian formed a second triumvirate together with Marcus Aemilius Lepidus, but after a new civil war, Octavian became the sole ruler of Rome.

Shortly after the assassination of Caesar, a bright comet appeared in the sky. Since it was very bright (its absolute magnitude is estimated at - 4.0) and appeared in the sky during Octavian’s ceremonial games in honor of Caesar, a belief spread in Rome that it was the soul of the murdered dictator.

Family and personal life of Julius Caesar:

Caesar was married at least three times.

The status of his relationship with Cossucia, a girl from a wealthy equestrian family, is not entirely clear, which is explained by the poor preservation of sources about Caesar’s childhood and youth. It is traditionally assumed that Caesar and Cossutia were engaged, although Gaius's biographer, Plutarch, considers Cossutia to be his wife.

The dissolution of relations with Cossutia apparently occurred in 84 BC. e.

Very soon Caesar married Cornelia, daughter of the consul Lucius Cornelius Cinna.

Caesar's second wife was Pompeia, the granddaughter of the dictator Lucius Cornelius Sulla (she was not a relative of Gnaeus Pompey). The marriage took place around 68 or 67 BC. e. In December 62 BC. e. Caesar divorces her after a scandal at the festival of the Good Goddess.

For the third time, Caesar married Calpurnia from a rich and influential plebeian family. This wedding apparently took place in May 59 BC. e.

Around 78 BC e. Cornelia gave birth to Julia. Caesar arranged his daughter's engagement to Quintus Servilius Caepio, but then changed his mind and married her to Gnaeus Pompey.

While in Egypt during the civil war, Caesar cohabited with Cleopatra, and presumably in the summer of 46 BC. e. she gave birth to a son known as Caesarion (Plutarch clarifies that this name was given to him by the Alexandrians, not the dictator). Despite the similarity of names and time of birth, Caesar did not officially recognize the child as his own, and contemporaries knew almost nothing about him before the assassination of the dictator.

After the Ides of March, when Cleopatra's son was left out of the dictator's will, some Caesarians (in particular, Mark Antony) tried to get him recognized as heir instead of Octavian. Due to the propaganda campaign that unfolded around the issue of Caesarion's paternity, it is difficult to establish his relationship with the dictator.

According to the unanimous testimony of ancient authors, Caesar was distinguished by sexual promiscuity. Suetonius gives a list of his most famous mistresses and gives him the following description: “He, by all accounts, was greedy and wasteful for love pleasures.”

A number of documents, in particular, the biography of Suetonius, and one of the epigram poems of Catullus, sometimes make it possible to classify Caesar as one of the famous homosexuals.

Robert Etienne, however, draws attention to the extreme paucity of such evidence - as a rule, the story of Nicomedes is mentioned. Suetonius calls this rumor "the only blemish" on Gaius's sexual reputation. Such hints were also made by ill-wishers. However, modern researchers draw attention to the fact that the Romans reproached Caesar not for homosexual contacts themselves, but only for his passive role in them. The fact is that in Roman opinion, any actions in a “penetrative” role were considered normal for a man, regardless of the gender of the partner. On the contrary, the passive role of a man was considered reprehensible. According to Dio Cassius, Guy vehemently denied all hints about his connection with Nicomedes, although he usually rarely lost his temper.

Gaius Julius Caesar is probably the most famous historical figure in Italy. Few people do not know the name of this great ancient Roman political and statesman and outstanding commander. His phrases become catchphrases; just remember the famous “Veni, vidi, vici” (“I came, I saw, I conquered”). We know a lot about him from chronicles, memories of his friends and enemies, and his own stories. But we don’t know the exact answer to the question of when Gaius Julius Caesar was born.

When was Gaius Julius Caesar born?

He was born on July 13 in 100 BC (according to other biographical sources this is 102 BC). He came from the noble Julius family, his father was the proconsul of Asia, and his mother came from the Aurelian family. Thanks to his origin and good education, Caesar could make a brilliant military and political career. Guy was interested in the history of the great campaigns, especially Alexander the Great. Caesar studied Greek, philosophy and literature, but most of all he wanted to study oratory. The young man sought to convince and influence the audience through his speech. Caesar quickly realized how he could win over the people. He knew that support among ordinary people would help him reach heights faster. Caesar organized theatrical performances and distributed money. The people quickly responded to such attention from Caesar.

Caesar receives, under the patronage of his mother, the position of priest of Jupiter in 84 BC. e. However, the dictator Sulla was against this appointment and did everything to ensure that Caesar left and lost all his fortune. He goes to Asia Minor where he does his military service.

In 78 BC, Gaius Julius Caesar returns back to Rome and begins to actively engage in public activities. To become an excellent speaker, he took lessons from the Rhetor Molon. He soon received the position of military tribune and priest-pontiff. Caesar becomes popular and is elected aedile in 65 BC. e., and in 52 BC. e. becomes praetor and governor of one of the provinces of Spain. Caesar proved himself to be an excellent leader and military strategist.

However, Gaius Julius aspired to rule, he had grandiose plans for his future political career. He concludes a triumvirate with Crassus and the general Pompey, they opposed the Senate. However, people from the Senate understood the degree of the threat and offered Caesar a position as ruler in Gaul, while the other two participants in the alliance were offered positions in Syria, Africa and Spain.

As proconsul of Gaul, Caesar carried out military operations. So, he conquered the trans-Alpine territory of Gaul and reached the Rhine, pushing back the German troops. Gaius Julius proved himself to be an excellent strategist and diplomat. Caesar was a great commander, he had a huge influence on his charges, he inspired them with his speeches, in any weather, at any time he led the army.

After the death of Crassus, Caesar decides to seize power in Rome. In 49 BC, the commander and his army crossed the Rubicon River. This battle becomes victorious and one of the most famous in Italian history. Pompey flees the country, fearing persecution. Caesar returns to Rome victorious and proclaims himself autocratic dictator.

Caesar spent government reforms, tried to improve the country. However, not everyone was happy with the autocracy of the dictator. A conspiracy was brewing against Gaius Julius. The organizers were Cassius and Brutus, who supported the republic. Caesar heard rumors of an impending threat, but he ignored them and refused to strengthen his guard. As a result, on March 15, 44 BC. e. the conspirators fulfilled their plan. In the Senate, Caesar was surrounded and the first blow was dealt to him. The dictator tried to fight back, but, unfortunately, he failed and died on the spot.

His life radically changed not only the history of Rome, but also world history. Gaius Julius Caesar was born under the republic, and after his death a monarchy was established.

A courageous man and seducer of women, Gaius Julius Caesar is a great Roman commander and emperor, famous for his military exploits, as well as for his character, because of which the name of the ruler became a household name. Julius is one of the most famous rulers who was in power in Ancient Rome.

The exact date of birth of this man is unknown; historians generally believe that Gaius Julius Caesar was born in 100 BC. At least, this is the date used by historians in most countries, although in France it is generally accepted that Julius was born in 101. A German historian who lived in the early 19th century was confident that Caesar was born in 102 BC, but Theodor Mommsen's assumptions are not used in modern historical literature.

Such disagreements among biographers are caused by ancient primary sources: ancient Roman scholars also disagreed about the true date of Caesar’s birth.

The Roman emperor and commander came from a noble family of patrician Julians. Legends say that this dynasty began with Aeneas, who, according to ancient Greek mythology, became famous in the Trojan War. And Aeneas’s parents are Anchises, a descendant of the Dardanian kings, and Aphrodite, the goddess of beauty and love (according to Roman mythology, Venus). The story of the divine origin of Julius was known to the Roman nobility, because this legend was successfully spread by the relatives of the ruler. Caesar himself, whenever the opportunity presented itself, liked to remember that there were Gods in his family. Scientists hypothesize that the Roman ruler comes from the Julian family, who were the ruling class at the beginning of the founding of the Roman Republic in the 5th-4th centuries BC.

Scientists also put forward various assumptions about the emperor's nickname “Caesar”. Perhaps one of the Julius dynasty was born by caesarean section. The name of the procedure comes from the word caesarea, which means “royal”. According to another opinion, someone from a Roman family was born with long and unkempt hair, which was denoted by the word “caeserius”.

The family of the future politician lived in prosperity. Caesar's father Gaius Julius served in a government position, and his mother came from the noble Cotta family.

Although the commander's family was wealthy, Caesar spent his childhood in the Roman region of Subura. This area was full of women of easy virtue, and also mostly poor people lived there. Ancient historians describe Suburu as a dirty and damp area, devoid of intelligentsia.

Caesar's parents sought to give their son an excellent education: the boy studied philosophy, poetry, oratory, and also developed physically and learned equestrianism. The learned Gaul Mark Antony Gniphon taught the young Caesar literature and etiquette. Whether the young man studied serious and exact sciences, such as mathematics and geometry, or history and jurisprudence, biographers do not know. Guy Julius Caesar received a Roman education; from childhood, the future ruler was a patriot and was not influenced by fashionable Greek culture.

Around 85 BC. Julius lost his father, so Caesar, as the only man, became the main breadwinner.

Policy

When the boy was 13 years old, the future commander was elected priest of the main God in Roman mythology, Jupiter - this title was one of the main posts of the then hierarchy. However, this fact cannot be called the pure merits of the young man, because Caesar’s sister, Julia, was married to Marius, an ancient Roman commander and politician.

But in order to become a flamen, according to the law, Julius had to get married, and the military commander Cornelius Cinna (he offered the boy the role of priest) chose Caesar’s chosen one - his own daughter Cornelia Cinilla.

In 82, Caesar had to flee Rome. The reason for this was the inauguration of Lucius Cornelius Sulla Felix, who began a dictatorial and bloody policy. Sulla Felix asked Caesar to divorce his wife Cornelia, but the future emperor refused, which provoked the anger of the current commander. Also, Gaius Julius was expelled from Rome because he was a relative of Lucius Cornelius' opponent.

Caesar was deprived of the title of flamen, as well as his wife and his own property. Julius, dressed in poor clothes, had to escape from the Great Empire.

Friends and relatives asked Sulla to have mercy on Julius, and because of their petition, Caesar was returned to his homeland. In addition, the Roman emperor did not see the danger in the person of Julius and said that Caesar was the same as Mari.

But life under the leadership of Sulla Felix was unbearable for the Romans, so Gaius Julius Caesar went to the Roman province located in Asia Minor to learn military skills. There he became an ally of Marcus Minucius Thermus, lived in Bithynia and Cilicia, and also participated in the war against the Greek city of Metilene. Participating in the capture of the city, Caesar saved the soldier, for which he received the second most important award - the civil crown (oak wreath).

In 78 BC. Residents of Italy who disagreed with Sulla’s activities tried to organize a rebellion against the bloody dictator. The initiator was the military leader and consul Marcus Aemilius Lepidus. Mark invited Caesar to take part in the uprising against the emperor, but Julius refused.

After the death of the Roman dictator, in 77 BC, Caesar tries to bring to justice two of Felix's henchmen: Gnaeus Cornelius Dolabella and Gaius Antonius Gabrida. Julius appeared before the judges with a brilliant oratorical speech, but the Sullans managed to avoid punishment. Caesar's accusations were written down in manuscripts and circulated throughout Ancient Rome. However, Julius considered it necessary to improve his oratory skills and went to Rhodes: A teacher, rhetorician Apollonius Molon lived on the island.

On his way to Rhodes, Caesar was captured by local pirates who demanded a ransom for the future emperor. While in captivity, Julius was not afraid of the robbers, but, on the contrary, joked with them and told poems. After freeing the hostages, Julius equipped a squadron and set off to capture the pirates. Caesar was unable to bring the robbers to trial, so he decided to execute the offenders. But due to the gentleness of their character, Julius initially ordered them to be killed, and then crucified on the cross, so that the robbers would not suffer.

In 73 BC. Julius became a member of the highest college of priests, which was previously ruled by the brother of Caesar's mother, Gaius Aurelius Cotta.

In 68 BC, Caesar married Pompey, a relative of Gaius Julius Caesar's comrade-in-arms and then bitter enemy, Gnaeus Pompey. Two years later, the future emperor receives the position of Roman magistrate and is engaged in the improvement of the capital of Italy, organizing celebrations, and helping the poor. And also, having received the title of senator, he appears at political intrigues, which is how he gains popularity. Caesar participated in the Leges frumentariae ("corn laws"), under which the population purchased grain at a reduced price or received it for free, and also in 49-44 BC. Julius carried out a number of reforms

Wars

The Gallic War is the most famous event in the history of Ancient Rome and the biography of Gaius Julius Caesar.

Caesar became proconsul, by this time Italy owned the province of Narbonese Gaul (the territory of present-day France). Julius went to negotiate with the leader of the Celtic tribe in Geneva, since the Helvetii began to move due to the invasion of the Germans.

Thanks to his oratory, Caesar managed to persuade the leader of the tribe not to set foot on the territory of the Roman Empire. However, the Helvetii went to Central Gaul, where the Aedui, allies of Rome, lived. Caesar, who was pursuing the Celtic tribe, defeated their army. At the same time, Julius defeated the German Suevi, who attacked the Gallic lands located on the territory of the Rhine River. After the war, the emperor wrote an essay on the conquest of Gaul, “Notes on the Gallic War.”

In 55 BC, the Roman military commander defeated the incoming Germanic tribes, and later Caesar himself decided to visit the territory of the Germans.

Caesar was the first commander of Ancient Rome who made a military campaign on the territory of the Rhine: Julius’s detachment moved along a specially built 400-meter bridge. However, the army of the Roman commander did not stay on the territory of Germany, and he attempted to make a campaign against the possessions of Britain. There, the military leader won a series of crushing victories, but the position of the Roman army was unstable, and Caesar had to retreat. Moreover, in 54 BC. Julius is forced to return to Gaul in order to suppress the uprising: the Gauls outnumbered the Roman army, but were defeated. By 50 BC, Gaius Julius Caesar had restored territories belonging to the Roman Empire.

During military operations, Caesar showed both strategic qualities and diplomatic skill; he knew how to manipulate the Gallic leaders and instill contradictions in them.

Dictatorship

After seizing Roman power, Julius became a dictator and took advantage of his position. Caesar changed the composition of the Senate, and also transformed the social structure of the empire: the lower classes stopped being driven to Rome, because the dictator canceled subsidies and reduced bread distributions.

Also, while in office, Caesar was engaged in construction: a new building named after Caesar was erected in Rome, where the Senate meeting was held, and an idol of the patroness of love and the Julian family, the Goddess of Venus, was erected in the central square of the capital of Italy. Caesar was named emperor, and his images and sculptures adorned the temples and streets of Rome. Every word of the Roman commander was equated to law.

Personal life

In addition to Cornelia Zinilla and Pompeii Sulla, the Roman emperor had other women. Julia's third wife was Calpurnia Pizonis, who came from a noble plebeian family and was a distant relative of Caesar's mother. The girl was married to the commander in 59 BC, the reason for this marriage is explained by political goals, after the marriage of his daughter, Calpurnia's father becomes consul.

If we talk about Caesar’s sex life, the Roman dictator was loving and had relationships with women on the side.

Women of Gaius Julius Caesar: Cornelia Cinilla, Calpurnia Pisonis and Servilia

There are also rumors that Julius Caesar was bisexual and engaged in carnal pleasures with men, for example, historians recall his youthful relationship with Nicomedes. Perhaps such stories took place only because they tried to slander Caesar.

If we talk about the famous mistresses of the politician, then one of the women on the side of the military leader was Servilia - the wife of Marcus Junius Brutus and the second bride of the consul Junius Silanus.

Caesar was condescending towards Servilia's love, so he tried to fulfill the wishes of her son Brutus, making him one of the first persons in Rome.

But the most famous woman Roman Emperor – Egyptian Queen. At the time of the meeting with the ruler, who was 21 years old, Caesar was over fifty: a laurel wreath covered his bald head, and there were wrinkles on his face. Despite his age, the Roman emperor conquered the young beauty, the happy existence of the lovers lasted 2.5 years and ended when Caesar was killed.

It is known that Julius Caesar had two children: a daughter from his first marriage, Julia, and a son, born from Cleopatra, Ptolemy Caesarion.

Death

The Roman emperor died on March 15, 44 BC. The cause of death was a conspiracy of senators who were indignant over the dictator's four-year rule. 14 people took part in the conspiracy, but the main one is considered to be Marcus Junius Brutus, the son of Servilia, the emperor’s mistress. Caesar loved Brutus infinitely and trusted him, placing the young man in highest position and protecting from difficulties. However, the devoted republican Marcus Junius, for the sake of political goals, was ready to kill the one who endlessly supported him.

Some ancient historians believed that Brutus was the son of Caesar, since Servilia had a love relationship with the commander at the time of the future conspirator’s conception, but this theory cannot be confirmed by reliable sources.

According to legend, the day before the conspiracy against Caesar, his wife Calpurnia had a terrible dream, but the Roman emperor was too trusting, and also recognized himself as a fatalist - he believed in the predetermination of events.

The conspirators gathered in the building where the Senate meetings were held, near the Theater of Pompeii. No one wanted to become the sole killer of Julius, so the criminals decided that each would inflict one single blow on the dictator.

The ancient Roman historian Suetonius wrote that when Julius Caesar saw Brutus, he asked: “And you, my child?”, and in his book he writes the famous quote: “And you, Brutus?”

Caesar's death hastened the fall of the Roman Empire: the people of Italy, who valued Caesar's government, were furious that a group of Romans had killed the great emperor. To the surprise of the conspirators, the only heir was named Caesar - Guy Octavian.

The life of Julius Caesar, as well as stories about the commander, abound interesting facts and riddles:

• The month of July is named after the Roman emperor;
• Caesar's contemporaries claimed that the emperor suffered from epileptic seizures;
• During gladiator fights, Caesar constantly wrote something on pieces of paper. One day the ruler was asked how he manages to do two things at once? To which he replied: “Caesar can do three things at the same time: write, watch, and listen.”. This expression has become popular; sometimes Caesar is jokingly called a person who takes on several tasks at the same time;
• In almost all photographic portraits, Gaius Julius Caesar appears before the audience wearing a laurel wreath. Indeed, in life the commander often wore this triumphal headdress, because he began to go bald early;

• About 10 films were made about the great commander, but not all are biographical in nature. For example, in the series "Rome" the ruler remembers the uprising of Spartacus, but some scholars believe that the only connection between the two commanders is that they were contemporaries;
• Phrase "I came, I saw, I conquered" belongs to Gaius Julius Caesar: the commander pronounced it after the capture of Turkey;
• Caesar used a code for secret correspondence with generals. Although the “Caesar cipher” is primitive: the letter in the word was replaced by the symbol that was to the left or to the right in the alphabet;
• The famous Caesar salad is named not after the Roman ruler, but after the cook who came up with the recipe.

Quotes

• "Victory depends on the valor of the legions."
• “When one loves, call it what you want: slavery, affection, respect... But this is not love - love is always reciprocated!”
• “Live in such a way that your friends will be bored when you die.”
• “No victory can bring as much as one defeat can take away.”
• “War gives the conquerors the right to dictate any conditions to the conquered.”

Bust of Julius Caesar from the collection of the British Museum. Photograph of Roger Fenton, commissioned by the British Museum. Approximately 1856 Royal Photographic Society

Julius Caesar is probably the most famous character of ancient history, and indeed of all ancient history. Only Alexander the Great can compete with him. Countless volumes of scientific works, popular biographies and fiction have been written about Caesar. He was played in films by such outstanding actors as John Gielgud, Rex Harrison, Klaus Maria Brandauer and Ciaran Hinds. Around any outstanding historical figure, sooner or later a husk of myths and legends grows. Caesar did not escape this either.

Myth 1. His name was Caius Julius Caesar

Let's start with the name. Caesar, like almost every Roman boy from a good family, had three names: first, praenomen, or personal name (Gaius) - there were very few of them in Ancient Rome, Gaius was one of the most common; secondly, a nomen, or family name (Iulius), and thirdly, a cognomen, originally a nickname with some dictionary meaning, attached to a branch of the clan and becoming hereditary (Cicero - Pea, Naso - Nosy). What the word Caesar meant is unknown. There were many explanations: Caesar himself claimed that it was “elephant” in the “Moorish language,” and Pliny the Elder raised the word to the verb caedo, “to cut, cut,” arguing that the very first Caesar (not ours, but one of his ancestors) was born from a cut uterus, that is, as a result of a procedure later known as C-section. Already thanks to the glory of our Julius Caesar, his cognomen in various forms entered many languages ​​of the world as a synonym for ruler - Caesar, Kaiser, Tsar.

The variant Kai (not Gaius) Julius Caesar has been around in everyday speech for a very long time. It is also found in literature: for example, in the fantastic story “Ghosts” by Turgenev, in “The Golden Calf” by Ilf and Petrov, or in “The White Guard” by Bulgakov. A search through the corpus of Russian literature texts produces 18 results for the query “Caius Julius” versus 21 for “Gai Julius,” almost equally divided. Ivan Ilyich in Tolstoy recalls an example from the “Logic” of the German Kantian philosopher Johann Gottfried Kiesewetter: “Caius is a man, people are mortal, therefore Caius is mortal” (in Kiesewetter: “Alle Menschen sind sterblich, Caius ist ein Mensch, also ist Caius sterblich” ). This is also, of course, “Caius” Julius Caesar. In languages ​​with Latin-based graphics, the variant Caius instead of Gaius also continues to be found - not only in novels, but also, for example, in the books of the modern British popularizer of antiquity Adrian Goldsworthy. This writing is the result not so much of a misunderstanding, but of a peculiar ancient Roman idea of ​​fidelity to tradition.

Although the sounds [k] and [g] have always been different in Latin, this difference was not initially reflected in writing. The reason was that the Etruscan (or some other Northern Italic) alphabet, from which Latin developed, did not have a stop [g]. When the volume of written information began to increase and literacy began to spread (in antiquity, in principle, there were not many free people who could not read and write at least at a primitive level), it became necessary to somehow distinguish between letters denoting dissimilar sounds, and C was attached tail. As linguist Alexander Piperski notes, the letter G is an innovation with a diacritic like the letter E, only more successful from a historical perspective. The letter E, as you know, was popularized by Karamzin, and Roman lovers of antiquities recorded that G was introduced into the alphabet by a certain Spurius Carvilius, a freedman and the first owner of a private elementary school in Rome, in the 3rd century BC. e.

The capital C, representing the sound [g], was often used as the initial of the names Guy and Gnaeus (C and CN, respectively). Such initials were found in dedicatory inscriptions, on tombstones, and in other contexts of increased importance. The Romans were very neurotic about this kind of thing and preferred not to change anything about them. Therefore, in the inscriptions starting from the 2nd century BC. e. we often see the letter G where it should be (for example, in the word AVG, an abbreviation for Augustus), but at the same time the name Guy is abbreviated in the old fashioned way as S. The same with the name Gnei, which is abbreviated as CN (however, the form “Knei” ", as far as I know, is not found anywhere in Russian).

Most likely, it was this ambiguity that caused the split of the popular Roman name into the correct Guy and the erroneous Kai. Kai from Andersen's "The Snow Queen" is most likely not related to Caesar - this is a common Scandinavian name, and there are many other etymological hypotheses about its origin, mainly going back to the Frisian languages.

Myth 2. We know what he looked like

Let's look at some sculptural portraits.

The first is the so-called Tusculan portrait, excavated in 1825 by Lucien Bonaparte (brother of Napoleon I). It is kept in the Museum of Antiquities of Turin. Several more sculptural images, stored in the National Roman Museum, the Hermitage, the New Carlsberg Glyptotek in Copenhagen, etc., belong to the same type.

Tusculan portrait from the Museum of Antiquities of Turin. Dated to 50–40 BC.© Gautier Poupeau / Wikimedia Commons

Copy from a Tusculan portrait. 1st century BC e. - I century AD e.© J. Paul Getty Trust

Copy from a Roman original of the 1st century AD. e. Italy, 16th century© State Hermitage Museum

The second common type of portrait of Caesar is the so-called bust of Chiaramonti (now kept in the Vatican Museums). Adjacent to it is another bust from Turin, sculptures from Parma, Vienna and a number of others.

Bust of Chiaramonti. 30-20 BC ancientrome.ru

The famous “Green Caesar” is kept in the Berlin Antique Collection.

"Green Caesar" from the exhibition of the Old Museum. 1st century BC e. Louis le Grand / Wikipedia Commons

Finally, in the fall of 2007, another alleged bust of Julius Caesar was raised from the bottom of the Rhone River near the French city of Arles.

Bust of Julius Caesar from Arles. Approximately 46 BC. e. IRPA / Musée Arles Antique / Wikipedia Commons

You can also see a good selection of sculptural portraits of Caesar here.

It is noticeable that even within the same type, the portraits are not very similar to each other, and if you compare one type with another, it is not at all clear how they can be the same person. At the same time, ancient Roman portrait sculpture was distinguished by a very high level of realism and consistently achieved portrait resemblance. To be convinced of this, just look at the numerous portraits of later emperors - Augustus, for example, or Marcus Aurelius. They cannot be confused with each other or with anyone else.

What's the matter? The fact is that almost all ancient sculptural portraits that have come down to us are not signed and their attribution is a matter of highest degree fortune-telling. Signed portrait images were found only on coins, and Caesar was the first Roman whose image appeared on coins during his lifetime (this happened in 44 BC, and already on March 15 of this year, on the ever-memorable Ides of March, he was killed ). Caesar's denarius, minted by the mint official Marcus Mettius, became the model for all later coins of imperial times.

Obverse of the denomination of Mar-ka Met-tius with the image of Julius Caesar. 44 BC e. Museum of Fine Arts / Bridgeman Images / Fotodom

The 55-year-old Caesar was depicted on the denarius with the realism characteristic of the late Republican era: a very long neck with folds, a protruding Adam's apple, a wrinkled forehead, a thin face, in some versions - wrinkles in the corners of the eyes, a wreath, which, according to rumors, Caesar camouflaged his baldness. But still, a coin is a special genre, and the attribution of a sculptural bust on the basis of a stylized numismatic picture is an unreliable matter. Of course, archaeologists from Arles wanted as many people as possible to know about the Roman bust of outstanding quality - which is undoubtedly a rare find - and this should also help finance the work. And for such a purpose, the “bust of Julius Caesar” is more suitable than the “bust of an unknown Roman.” The same caution must be applied to all other sculptural images of Julius Caesar.

In how the public imagines a character, reputation is often more important than credibility. If you do a Google image search for Emperor Vitellius, the first thing you see is a bust from the Louvre depicting an obese, arrogant man with a triple chin. This correlates well with the image of the emperor, who, according to Suetonius, “was most distinguished by gluttony and cruelty.” But the surviving coins show a completely different face - a man also not thin, but certainly not with a snub nose.

Bust of a man (pseudo-Vitellius). Copy from an earlier sculpture. 16th century© Wikimedia Commons

Denarius of Emperor Vitellius. '69© Wikimedia Commons

Myth 3. He could do several things at once.

Have you ever heard your mother or grandmother say, “Don’t read while you eat, you’re not Gaius (or Caius) Julius Caesar”? At the heart of this warning is the idea that Caesar could multitask and that this kind of multitasking was a unique ability that most people did not have.

Firstly, this meme is most common in Russia. In Western European cultures there is no such stable expression, although the fact itself is known and sometimes mentioned. However, finding it in sources is not so easy. Suetonius says nothing about this in his biography of Caesar. Plutarch, with reference to a certain Oppius, notes that Caesar “during the campaign, he also practiced dictating letters while sitting on a horse, simultaneously employing two or even ... an even larger number of scribes.” This remark is inserted between a mention of his dashing physical dexterity (“He could, by moving his arms back and placing them behind his back, let his horse fly at full speed” - if you think this is not so difficult, I remind you that ancient horsemen did not use stirrups) and a story about the invention of SMS (“They say that Caesar was the first to come up with the idea of ​​​​conversing with friends about urgent matters through letters, when the size of the city and exceptional busyness did not allow meeting in person”).

Julius Caesar dictates his sayings. Painting by Pelagio Palagi. 19th century Palazzo del Quirinale/Bridgeman Images

Pliny the Elder speaks in somewhat more detail about this feature in his monumental work Natural History. He finds the liveliness of mind that distinguished Caesar unprecedented: “They report that he could write or read and at the same time dictate and listen. He could dictate four letters to his secretaries at a time, and on the most important issues; and if he was not busy with anything else, then seven letters.” Finally, Suetonius, in his biography of Augustus, notes that Julius Caesar, during the circus games, “read letters and papers or wrote answers to them,” for which he was subject to criticism, and Augustus made efforts not to repeat this PR mistake of his adoptive father.

We see that we are not talking about real parallel processing, but (as happens with computers) about quickly switching from one task to another, about competent distribution of attention and prioritization. The life of a public person in antiquity posed tasks to his memory and attention that were incomparable with those that he had to solve modern people: for example, any speech, even one that lasted many hours, had to be learned by heart (opportunities for improvisation, of course, existed, but in any case the general outline had to be kept in mind). Nevertheless, even against this background, Caesar’s abilities made an indelible impression on his contemporaries.

Napoleon Bonaparte, whose desire to imitate and surpass Caesar is well documented, was also famous for his ability to dictate up to seven letters at once and, according to the memoirs of one of his secretaries, Baron Claude François de Meneval, attributed this superpower to his virtuoso mastery of the technique, which in modern managerial jargon is called compartmentalization . “When I want to take my mind off something,” Napoleon said, according to Meneval, “I close the box in which it is stored and open another. The two things never mix and never bother or tire me. When I want to sleep, I close all the drawers." This system of spatial visualization of topics or tasks also dates back to classical antiquity.

Bonus track. Where was Julius Caesar killed?

Death of Julius Caesar. Painting by Jean Leon Gerome. 1859-1867 Walters Art Museum

Caesar was killed on his way to a Senate meeting. This fact, combined with the authority of Shakespeare (who places the assassination scene somewhere near the Capitol - that is, perhaps in the Forum, over the western part of which Capitol Hill rises), gives many the erroneous impression that he was killed directly in the Senate building . The Senate building still stands on the Forum and is even called the Julian Curia. But during the time of Caesar he was not there: the old curia burned down during the unrest that preceded his reign, he ordered a new one to be built, but did not have time to see it (it was completed under Augustus; the building that has survived to this day is even later, from the time of Emperor Diocletian) .

While there was no permanent meeting place, senators gathered wherever they could (this practice has always existed and did not stop after the construction of the curia). On this occasion the place of the meeting was the portico of the newly erected Theater of Pompey; there the conspirators attacked Caesar. Today this point is located in a square called Largo di Torre Argentina. In the 1920s, the ruins of four very old temples from the Republican era were discovered there. Under Augustus, the site of Caesar's murder was walled up as if it were cursed, and a public latrine was built nearby, the remains of which can still be seen today.

Sources

• Gaius Suetonius Tranquillus. The Life of the Twelve Caesars. Divine Julius.
• Caius Pliny Sec. Natural history.
• Plutarch. Comparative biographies. Alexander and Caesar.
• Balsdon J.P.V.D. Julius Caesar and Rome.
• Goldsworthy A. Caesar: Life of a Colossus.

  New Haven; London, 2008.

• A Companion to Julius Caesar.