§ 155. The dictionaries created to date are very heterogeneous. They differ significantly in volume, object of description, content, purpose, methods of lexicographic description of the material and many other criteria on the basis of which their classification is carried out, their different types, subtypes, types, etc. are distinguished. Depending on the content of the dictionaries, they differ, first of all, from linguistic dictionaries (linguistic, philological, or lexicons, word dictionaries - according to B. N. Golovin) and non-linguistic (non-linguistic, or concept dictionaries - according to B. N. Golovin).

Linguistic dictionaries

§ 156. Linguistic These are dictionaries that describe linguistic units - words, phrases, phraseological units, word forms, morphemes and others, and their description is carried out from one or another linguistic angle. They contain lexicological, semantic, grammatical, accent, orthoepic, spelling, stylistic and other characteristics of the described units of language. Depending on the volume (selection, coverage) of the language material described, linguistic dictionaries are divided into general, or thesauri, and private. Let us first consider dictionaries that describe the actual words of the language, and not their parts or combinations of different words, i.e. dictionaries in their narrow sense, which are divided into general and specific.

§ 157. General are linguistic dictionaries that describe all the words of a language or their main part. General dictionaries include, for example, dictionaries

explanatory, translated, historical, dialect (full), reverse.

Intelligent are called dictionaries, the main task of which is to explain (interpret) the lexical meanings of words of a particular language using the means of the same language. In addition, explanatory dictionaries contain other information about the words being described. They usually give grammatical characteristics of many words (the belonging of the word to a certain part of speech is indicated, the grammatical gender of nouns is noted, the formation features of some case forms, forms plural, features of the formation of short forms and forms of degrees of comparison of some adjectives, aspect forms of the verb, etc.), their phonetic characteristics (the place of verbal stress, features of pronunciation, spelling of some words are indicated), stylistic, emotional and expressive characteristics (using special marks ). Sometimes etymological, historical and other information is given. As examples of explanatory dictionaries, we can name the most famous dictionaries of the modern Russian literary language of this type: Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language / ed. D. N. Ushakova. T. 1-4. – M., 1935-1940; 2nd ed. – M., 1947-1948; large academic dictionary of modern Russian literary language. T. 1 – 17. – M.; L., 1948–1965; Small Academic Dictionary of the Russian Language. T. 1–4. – M., 1957–1961; 2nd ed. – M., 1981–1984; Ozhegov, S. I. Dictionary of the Russian language. – M., 1949 and subsequent editions; Ozhegov, S. I. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language / S. I. Ozhegov, N. Yu. Shvedova. – M., 1992 and subsequent editions.

Explanatory dictionaries usually describe the vocabulary of modern literary languages, although many of them (for example, the large and small academic dictionaries of the Russian language mentioned above) include a large number of colloquial, obsolete, and partially regional words. There are also such explanatory dictionaries that strive to cover all the commonly used vocabulary of a language and its dialect vocabulary. Such dictionaries are, for example, the four-volume explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language by V. I. Dahl (the first edition was published in 1863–1866), the eight-volume Dictionary of the Polish Language edited by Jan Karlovich, Adam Kryński and Władysław Niedzhvedski (Warsaw, 1900–1935) , 20-volume academic Dictionary of the Lithuanian language (Vilnius, 1941–2002).

Explanatory dictionaries differ markedly in the order in which the words they describe are arranged. Most often, words are arranged in them in strictly alphabetical order, although certain deviations from this order are often allowed: in particular, in one dictionary entry, along with the head word-noun, diminutive forms derived from it or other evaluative formations, some adjectives are placed; in an article with a heading adjective word, the adverb derived from it is indicated, etc.; see, for example, the above-mentioned explanatory dictionaries of the modern Russian language (except for the first three volumes of the large academic dictionary). Some dictionaries use a nested method of arranging words, in which all words with the same root (i.e., entire nests of words) are described in one dictionary entry. In other words, words in such dictionaries are arranged in alphabetical order of roots. This is how it is customary to build, for example, dictionaries in Arabic lexicography. In Russian lexicographical practice, a semi-nested method of arranging words is sometimes used: according to the nested method, i.e. all words are arranged in alphabetical order of roots, except for prefixed verbs, which are described in their alphabetical place (see, for example, V. I. Dahl’s Explanatory Dictionary, the first three volumes of a large academic dictionary).

Explanatory dictionaries include (as a special type of them) the so-called ideographic dictionaries (from Greek. idea"concept" and grapho"I write"), which are also called ideological or thematic. They differ from ordinary explanatory dictionaries, first of all, in the order of arrangement of words, which are arranged in them not in alphabetical order, but according to the principle of common meanings, i.e. in certain conceptual areas and thematic groups. In other words, the description of vocabulary in such dictionaries is based not on lexical units, but on the concepts (ideas) they denote. According to the definition of L.V. Shcherba, the description of words in such dictionaries is carried out according to the principle: “Not from words to meaning, but from meanings, from ideas to words.” An example of an ideographic dictionary is the Thesaurus of English words and expressions Π. M. Roger (London, 1852), which became the first ideographic dictionary of the modern type. Words in it are divided into classes (four classes are distinguished), which are divided into types and groups (1000 groups in total). Later, based on the model of this dictionary, similar dictionaries were created for other languages: French (T. Robertson, 1859), German (D. Zandere, 1877, A. Schlessing, 1881), Spanish, Swedish, Hungarian, etc. Ideographic dictionaries can be monolingual and multilingual (bilingual and multilingual).

A special type of ideographic dictionaries are dictionaries picturesque. In them, different areas of reality are depicted in the form of drawings with a digital designation for each and subsequent designation of the depicted objects in words of a separate language or different languages. An example of such a dictionary is the Picture Dictionary of the Russian Language by Yu. V. Vannikov and A. N. Shchukin (2nd ed. M., 1969).

A unique ideographic dictionary is the six-volume Russian Semantic Dictionary: Explanatory Dictionary, systematized by classes of words and meanings / under general. ed. N. Yu. Shvedova. – M., 1998. – T. 1. The groupings of lexical units identified in this dictionary (lexical-semantic classes, sets and subsets) are depicted using special schemes with subsequent semantic characteristics of all words related to each of the groupings indicated in the scheme.

Dictionaries are also explanatory historical, dialectal, dictionaries of new words (neologisms) or many of them, but they do not belong to general dictionaries in the understanding of this term accepted here (see about them below).

Transferable, or multilingual, dictionaries are fundamentally different from explanatory dictionaries different types a way of explaining the meanings of the described words (or other lexical units). In them, the meanings of words in one language are explained by means of another language (or other languages), i.e. by translating words of a given language into another language(s). As in explanatory dictionaries, translated dictionaries usually contain grammatical, phonetic (mainly accent), sometimes stylistic and other characteristics of the words being explained.

Based on the number of languages ​​used, translated (multilingual) dictionaries are divided into bilingual And multilingual. The most common are bilingual translation dictionaries, for example: Russian-Ukrainian, English-Russian, Russian-German and many others. Less known are multilingual translation dictionaries, for example: Russian-Kabardian-Balkar, Tibetan-Sanskrit-Russian-English.

Depending on the place of the word of the native language in the dictionary entry, translated dictionaries can be divided into active, in which the words of the native language are located at the beginning of the dictionary entry, i.e. on the left side, and passive, in which words of the native language are placed after foreign words, on the right side of the dictionary entry. So, for Russian readers, for example, the Russian-Ukrainian dictionary is active, and for Ukrainians, on the contrary, the Ukrainian-Russian one.

Reverse dictionaries(also called inversion) are lists of words of a particular language, arranged in alphabetical order of final letters. In the first place they are placed words ending with the first letter of the alphabet, followed by words ending with the second letter of the alphabet, etc., the list ends with words ending with the last letter of the alphabet. Russian language dictionaries, for example, begin with the words a, ba, woman, toad etc. and ends with words ending in -yaya. Such dictionaries are useful in studying suffixal and postfixal word formation, morphological features of words of different parts of speech, some phonetic phenomena reflected at the end of a word, etc.

The first linguistic reverse dictionaries appeared at the end of the 19th – beginning of the 20th centuries. These were dictionaries of Latin, ancient Greek, Sanskrit, Tocharian, ancient Persian and Old Church Slavonic. The first reverse dictionaries of the Russian language were published in Germany. These are the Reverse Dictionary of the Modern Russian Language, edited by X. X. Bielfeldt (published in the GDR in 1958) and the Russian Reverse Dictionary by R. Grave and B. Kroesche in four parts, created under the leadership of M. Vasmer (published in the Federal Republic of Germany in 1958–1959. ). In our country, the first Reverse Dictionary of the Russian Language was published in 1974. It was created on the basis of four explanatory dictionaries of the modern Russian language published by that time: a dictionary edited by D. N. Ushakov, a dictionary by S. I. Ozhegov, a large and small academic dictionary, and contains about 125 thousand words, i.e. includes all words described in the named explanatory dictionaries.

§ 158. Private Linguistic dictionaries are those that describe not the entire vocabulary of a particular language(s), but only a certain part of words selected according to certain characteristics. Private dictionaries include, for example, dictionaries of foreign words (they describe only words borrowed from other languages), dictionaries of synonyms, homonyms, antonyms, paronyms (they describe only words forming synonymous, homonymic, antonymic, paronymic series and pairs), dictionaries new words, or neologisms (words that have appeared recently and are not included in general normative dictionaries are included), dictionaries of archaisms (i.e. words displaced from active use by synonymous lexical units), dictionaries of colloquial words, argotisms, rare words, abbreviations, etc.

Among private linguistic dictionaries, dictionaries stand out especially frequency(sometimes called statistical). Well-known frequency dictionaries consider words that are most often used in speech. The words described in them are characterized in terms of frequency of use in a text of a certain volume. For each word, its frequency in specially selected and surveyed texts is indicated. Words are arranged depending on the frequency of use, in descending order of frequency. In some dictionaries they are distributed by parts of speech. Sometimes the frequencies of use of individual grammatical forms of the words described are indicated. Usually, alphabetical lists of words included in the dictionaries are included.

Chronologically, the first frequency dictionary was the Frequency Dictionary of the German Language by F. Köding, published in Germany in 1898. The first frequency dictionary of the Russian language was prepared in Czechoslovakia under the leadership of Frantisek Malirz and published in Prague in 1951. It was created on the basis of texts from Russian newspapers and magazines 1948, contains 1475 head words and 1633 derivatives. In 1953, G. Yosselson's Frequency Dictionary of the Russian Language was published in Detroit (USA). The volume of the vocabulary is 1700 words. To create it, the author examined texts with a volume of 1 million word usages. In our country, the most famous frequency dictionaries created by Soviet linguists are: Frequency Dictionary of the Modern Russian Literary Language by E. A. Steinfeld (Tallinn, 1963), containing 2,500 of the most common words, and Frequency Dictionary of the Russian Language, created under the editorship of L. N. Zasorina ( M., 1977); The frequency vocabulary includes 9044 units, i.e. all words with a frequency of 10 or higher.

The materials of frequency dictionaries are important for solving a number of theoretical and practical problems. They can be used in the study of language and style, the writer’s vocabulary or individual works, some issues of language norms, and are widely used in the study of a foreign language.

Frequency dictionaries include writer's language dictionaries, i.e. "dictionaries containing the vocabulary of the works of a particular writer." They combine the features of general and private dictionaries. Such dictionaries cover the entire set of lexical units used in the work of a particular writer or a separate work of art. In this sense they are common. At the same time, in relation to the vocabulary of a language as a whole, such dictionaries are private, since they do not reflect (and cannot reflect) the entire vocabulary of a given language.

A classic example of such a dictionary is the four-volume Dictionary of the Pushkin Language, created by the Institute of Russian Language of the USSR Academy of Sciences under the editorship of V. V. Vinogradov (M., 1956–1961). It includes all the words used in the main text of the Complete Works of A. S. Pushkin in 16 volumes (1937–1949), as well as all forms of grammatically inflected words found in this text - a total of 21,191 words in 544,777 word usages. Full information about the frequency of each word is provided.

Private dictionaries are sometimes called special or aspectual, but in modern linguistics these terms are also used in a different meaning. Special(aspectual) are linguistic dictionaries (general and specific) that examine vocabulary from a specific angle, “revealing individual aspects of words and the relationships between them.” These include etymological dictionaries (cf. Greek. etymologia"establishing the true meaning of a word"), which explains the origin of words, primarily derivatives and borrowed from other languages ​​(for example: Preobrazhensky, A. G. Etymological dictionary of the Russian language. – T. 1–2. M., 1910–1914; 2nd ed. – M., 1959; Vasmer, M. Etymological dictionary of the Russian language: trans. with him. – T. 1–4. – M., 1964–1973; 2nd ed. – M., 1986–1987; multi-volume Etymological Dictionary of the Russian Language, published at Moscow State University under the editorship of N. M. Shansky since 1963); word-formation, or derivation, defining the word-formation structure of derived words (for example: Tikhonov, L. N. Word-formation dictionary of the Russian language: in 2 volumes - M., 1985; Shklyarov, V. T. Brief word-formation dictionary of the Russian language / V. T. Shklyarov, X. Kuhnert. – Potsdam, 1973); grammatical, containing the grammatical characteristics of words (for example: Zaliznyak, A. A. Grammar dictionary of the Russian language. – M., 1977. – 3rd ed. – M., 1987; Sazonova, I. K. Russian verb and its participial forms. – M., 1989 (explanatory and grammatical dictionary)); frequency dictionaries that characterize words in terms of the frequency of use of words in speech (they were discussed above); well-known spelling, spelling, accent dictionaries, dictionaries of synonyms (or synonymous), homonyms (homonymic), antonyms (antonymic), paronyms (paronymic), etc.

§ 159. As mentioned above (in § 156), linguistic dictionaries contain not only all kinds of descriptions of words, but also descriptions of linguistic units of other levels - certain parts of words, i.e. morphemes of different types, and combinations of different words. Accordingly, special types of linguistic dictionaries are distinguished - dictionaries of morphemes (morpheme dictionaries) and dictionaries of phrases.

Morpheme dictionaries contain a systematic description of certain types of morphemes - root and auxiliary (primarily prefixes and suffixes) used in a particular language. Morphemes in such dictionaries are presented in the words in which they stand out. Therefore, such dictionaries are sometimes called dictionaries of morphemic division of words.

Morpheme dictionaries differ depending on the object of description, i.e. the type of morphemes being described. Thus, in the Dictionary of Morphemes of the Russian Language by A.I. Kuznetsova and T.F. Efremova (M., 1986) root, prefixal and suffixal morphemes are described (5000 morphemes in total). There are dictionaries that describe only service morphemes, for example, G. P. Tsyganenko’s Dictionary of Service Morphemes in the Russian Language (Kyiv, 1982). There are also dictionaries that are limited to describing only root morphemes (root dictionaries of morphemes, dictionaries of roots, or root words), for example, Dictionary of the Roots of the Russian Language by K. Volkonskaya and M. Poltoratskaya (New York, 1961). Along with monolingual morpheme dictionaries, there are multilingual and multilingual dictionaries. Among monolingual morpheme dictionaries, explanatory dictionaries stand out. The original dictionary of morphemes is the recently published Morphemic-Spelling Dictionary by A. N. Tikhonov (M., 2002). Depending on the order of arrangement of the described units among morpheme dictionaries, alphabetical and nested dictionaries, etc., differ.

Some dictionaries, which their compilers call word-formative, are essentially morphemic, for example: Potiha, 3. A. School word-formation dictionary. – M., 1964; Worth, D. Word-formation dictionary of the Russian language / D. Worth, A. Kozak, D. Johnson. – New York, 1970.

Dictionaries of phrases are, first of all, phraseological dictionaries, i.e. dictionaries that describe phraseological units, complete phraseological units, or phraseological units, of one or another language or different languages. Examples of phraseological dictionaries of the Russian language: Phraseological dictionary of the Russian language / ed. A. I. Molotkova. – M., 1967; 5th ed. – M., 1994 (including 4 thousand dictionary entries); Zhukov, V. P. School phraseological dictionary of the Russian language. – M., 1980; 3rd ed. (together with A.V. Zhukov). – M., 1994. A number of dictionaries have also been published that describe certain types of phraseological units, for example: Winged words according to the interpretation of S. Maksimov (1890); Winged words of N. S. Anushkin and M. G. Anushkina (M., 1955); Accurate and walking words of M. I. Mikhelson (St. Petersburg, 1994; 2nd ed. - St. Petersburg, 1996); Proverbs of the Russian people by V. I. Dahl (M., 1984); Dictionary of Russian proverbs and sayings by V. P. Zhukov (M., 1966; 3rd edition - M., 1969). There are a number of educational phraseological dictionaries, multilingual (translated) dictionaries: English-Russian, German-Russian, Italian-Russian, Spanish-Russian, French-Russian, Russian-German (short), Russian-Lithuanian (school). In the USA, separate frequency dictionaries of phraseological units by E. Hauch (New York, 1931), G. Eaton (New York, 1934) were created. The latter is multilingual, it describes the phraseology of four Indo-European languages: English, German, French, Spanish.

There are also dictionaries of free word combinations, or dictionaries of word combinations, for example, the Educational Dictionary of Word Combinations of the Russian Language, edited by Π. N. Denisova and V. V. Morkovkina (M., 1978). It includes about 2,500 dictionary entries, the main content of which is a series of free phrases with different significant words (nouns, adjectives, verbs) indicated in the headings of the dictionary entries. The dictionary is intended for students of Russian as a foreign language and for Russian language teachers working with foreign students.

The level of general and speech culture of a person is largely determined by how this linguistic person knows how to use dictionaries (for more details, see lecture No. 3). In our country, hundreds of dictionaries of various volumes and targeted areas are published (large, small, short; academic, school, etc.). But according to the target setting, the selection of material and its presentation, they are all divided into two groups: encyclopedic dictionaries And linguistic (language) dictionaries. The similarities and fundamental differences between these types of dictionaries are given in Table. 5.12.

Table 5.12

Comparative characteristics of encyclopedic and linguistic dictionaries

End of table. 5.12

	II. Differences
1. The object of description is reality: object, device, phenomenon, event, person, etc.	1. The object of description is a linguistic unit: word, phraseological unit, morpheme, etc.
2. The goal is to give a comprehensive scientific description of the concept or phenomenon	2. The goal is to give a brief description of the lexical meaning of a word, phraseological unit, etc.
3. Includes exclusively nouns and compound names	3. Includes words of all parts of speech, including function ones
4. Contains proper names	4. Does not contain proper names
5. Contains visual illustrative material (photos, reproductions, maps, drawings, etc.)	5. Contains verbal illustrative material: quotes, sayings, etc.
	III. Examples
ALTYN (from Tat. altyn - gold), an old Russian small coin, as well as a unit of money. accounts. Initially it was equal to 6 Moscow or 3 Novgorod money (see. Money). The latter later received the name kopek. Hence what has survived to this day. name time “five-altyn” for 15 kopecks. In 1654, a copper coin with the inscription “altynnik” was first issued, and in 1704 (to 1726) a silver coin was issued. Great Soviet Encyclopedia: 30 volumes. T.1, p. 463.	ALTYN, m.Ancient Russian small coin of three kopecks. [ Razlyulyaev (sings):] Here we have millet for one hryvnia, and barley for three altyns. A. Ostrovsky. Poverty is not a vice.
Dictionary of the Russian language: in 4 volumes (MAS). T.1, p.33.

In table 5.13 given general characteristics main types of linguistic dictionaries.

Table 5.13

Types of linguistic dictionaries

Dictionary type	Purpose
Explanatory	Gives an interpretation of the lexical meaning of a word; contains its grammatical and other characteristics
Orthoepic	Fixes pronunciation and stress standards
Orthographic	Fixes the norms of spelling words and individual forms of words
Grammatical	Contains information about the grammatical properties of words
Etymological	Contains information about the origin and internal form of * borrowed and native Russian words
Foreign words	Contains information about the origin and lexical meaning of words borrowed from the Russian language
Phraseological	Fixes stable expressions; contains information about their lexical meaning and origin
Synonyms	Includes rows of words with the same or similar lexical meanings
Antonimov	Includes pairs of words with opposite lexical meanings
Homonimov	Includes pairs of words with the same spelling and/or pronunciation, but having different lexical meanings
	End of Table 5.11
Paronimov	Includes pairs of words that sound similar but have different lexical meanings
Derivational	Shows the division of words into morphemes, the word-formation structure of words and word-formation nests
Collocations of words	Contains combining characteristics of the most common words
Abbreviations	Contains decoding of complex abbreviated words, as well as graphic abbreviations used in written speech

Note:* The internal form of the word is the feature underlying the name. For example, noun animal, borrowed from the Old Church Slavonic language, formed in it from the word belly ( synonymous with Russian life).

Which dictionaries lack information about the lexical meaning of a word?

In which linguistic dictionary does a dictionary entry consist of only one word? Why?

What are the similarities and differences between a dictionary of foreign words and an explanatory dictionary?

What are the similarities and differences between a dictionary of foreign words and an etymological dictionary?

The branch of linguistics that studies the systematization and description of linguistic units in dictionaries is called lexicography, and the compilers of dictionaries are lexicographers. The dictionaries themselves are of great value not only for science, but also for the whole society. But, despite the existing variety of linguistic dictionaries (see Table 5.13), in the minds of most native speakers the word-term dictionary however, it is primarily related to explanatory (lexical) dictionary. It is explanatory dictionaries, the purpose of which is to explain the lexical meaning of words using words of the same language, to show the conditions for their correct use, that are the most commonly used.

It can be argued that everyone knows the so-called. Dahl's dictionary, whose full name is “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” (for more information about V.I. Dal, see lecture 1, §1.2.). Collocation Dahl's Dictionary - uh it is a kind of precedent text, and even those who have never held it in their hands know about the existence of this dictionary. All his life V.I. Dahl worked on compiling a dictionary from the age of nineteen almost until his death. And, despite the fact that about 150 years have passed since the first edition, and its compiler did not set himself the goal of codifying lexical norms, the dictionary has not lost its relevance. Why?

Firstly, in this largest dictionary by V.I. Dal (unlike his predecessors) sought to include all Russian words known to him: bookish, colloquial, dialectal and terminological in nature. He characterized over 200,000 words, some of which the compiler selected from already published dictionaries, and a significant part (about 80,000) collected by himself.

Secondly, the dictionary contains valuable material about existing Russian trades and crafts, about folk beliefs, customs, and rituals. The uniqueness of the dictionary lies in the illustrative material used: phraseological units, proverbs, sayings, riddles (there are more than 30,000 of them in the dictionary), figuratively and at the same time visually conveying the Russian linguistic mentality. (About the essence of the concept language mentality see lecture No. 4, § 4.2.).

And finally, the Dahl Dictionary contains encyclopedic information in separate dictionary entries. For example, in the article mushroom, along with the characteristics of this concept ( the plant is more or less fleshy, without branches, without leaves, without color; consists of a root or pistil with lobes and a cap), contains an exhaustive list of types of mushrooms, and even the Latin terms corresponding to each Russian name are given. And in the dictionary entry bake Not only are the types of stoves listed, but the structure of the Russian stove is also described in detail.

True, it should be noted that a feature of the Dahl Dictionary that can somewhat complicate the search for the desired word in it: it is built not according to the alphabetical principle, like other dictionaries, but according to an alphabetical nested one (the reasons for this are mentioned in lecture No. 1, § 1.2.). Let's say in vain we will search for the word noun bathhouse as a headword: it is located in the dictionary entry with the headword bath (wash, clean with water); within the framework of the same article the words are characterized bath, bathhouse, bathhouse attendant and other similar words.

Among modern explanatory dictionaries, the most famous and popular is the explanatory dictionary “Dictionary of the Russian Language” S.I. Ozhegova, as well as the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language” created on its basis S.I. Ozhegov and N.Yu. Shvedova. Comparative characteristics of the most famous modern explanatory dictionaries are presented in Table 5.14:

Russian language. Encyclopedia/ ch. ed. Yu. N. Karaulov. - 2nd ed., revised. and additional — M.: Great Russian Encyclopedia; Bustard, 1997.

Encyclopedia “Russian Language” is a joint work of the publishing house “Big Russian Encyclopedia” and the Institute of Russian Language. V. V. Vinogradov RAS. The book, containing about 700 articles, two indexes (subject and name), numerous illustrations, contains everything that knows modern science about the Russian language: its sound composition, intonation, stress, pronunciation, grammar, types of sentences, dialects, literary language, jargons, alphabet, properties of letters, history of development and written monuments, dictionaries, etc. Authors articles by leading Russian scholars.

The encyclopedia is designed for everyone who studies and teaches the Russian language.

Large Russian dictionary language. — M.: Bustard; Russian language, 1998.

“Big Dictionary of the Russian Language” is the first unique publication both in structure and in the completeness of lexicographic material.

The dictionary consists of three parts: “Basic dictionaries of the Russian language”, “Small dictionaries of the Russian language” and “Dictionary of terms and concepts”. The main dictionaries are represented by spelling, spelling, etymological dictionaries and a dictionary of foreign words. Small dictionaries provide a lexicographic description of various aspects of the Russian language. The dictionary of terms and concepts covers general issues of linguistics, as well as information on vocabulary, phonetics, graphics, spelling, morphology and syntax. For a wide range of readers.

Small Russian dictionary language. — M.: Bustard; Russian language, 1999.

The Small Dictionary of the Russian Language, published for the first time, is a universal reference publication on the main sections of the modern Russian language. The dictionary includes “Spelling Dictionary”, “Spelling Dictionary”, “Etymological Dictionary” and “Dictionary of Foreign Words”. In addition, the “Spelling Dictionary” is supplemented with small reference dictionaries on certain complex issues of Russian grammar.

An integrated approach made it possible to place in dictionaries materials that complement each other, allowing one to obtain comprehensive information about the word. A dictionary with such vocabulary coverage is a sufficient and reliable lexical base for mastering Russian grammar in its entirety.

For a wide range of readers.

Dictionary of modern Russian literary language. In 17 volumes - M.-L.: Publishing House of the USSR Academy of Sciences, 1950-1965.

The most representative lexicographic publication of the Soviet era.

Contains about 120 thousand words. Covers the lexical wealth of the Russian literary language with its grammatical characteristics from Pushkin to the present day. Explanatory-historical and normative dictionary. The meanings, shades of meaning and features of the use of words are richly illustrated in the dictionary with quotations from fiction, scientific and socio-political literature of the 19th-20th centuries. In the reference section of the dictionary article, based on Russian lexicographic works and other sources, information on the history of the language is provided; word formation, spelling, word stress, etc., in separate articles information is given on the etymological composition of words, on the borrowing of a given word from another language.

Dictionary of the Russian language. In 4t. / RAS, Institute of Linguistic Research; edited by A. P. Evgenieva. - 4th ed., erased. — M.: Russian language; Polygraph resources, 1999.

The dictionary contains more than 80 thousand words of the modern Russian literary language and covers the vocabulary of the Russian language from Pushkin to the present day. With a word, an interpretation of its meaning is given, basic grammatical forms are given, the word is provided with normative stress and stylistic notes. Dictionary entries are illustrated.

For a word of foreign origin, an etymological certificate is provided.

The dictionary is of interest both to a wide range of readers and to specialist philologists, translators, and workers in the press, radio and television.

Ozhegov S., Shvedova N. Yu. Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language: 80,000 words and phraseological expressions / Russian Academy of Sciences. Institute of Russian Language named after. V. V. Vinogradova. - 4th ed., add. - M.: Azbukovnik, 1999.

The one-volume explanatory dictionary of the Russian language contains 80,000 words and phraseological expressions (counting head words, derivative words placed in the word-formative nest, and phraseological expressions and idioms).

Words and phraseological units belong to general literary Russian vocabulary, as well as to special areas of the language that interact with it; The dictionary also widely represents colloquial vocabulary used in literature and colloquial speech. A dictionary entry includes an interpretation of the meaning, a description of the structure of a polysemantic word, examples of use, information about the compatibility of the word, grammatical and accentological (if necessary, also orthoepic) characteristics of the word. The dictionary entry is accompanied by a description of those phraseological expressions that are generated by this word or are somehow connected with it.

The book is addressed to a wide range of readers: it can be used by both those starting to study the Russian language and those who speak it well and turn to the dictionary to clarify or expand their knowledge.

Explanatory dictionary of the Russian language of the late 20th century. Language changes / ed. G. N. Sklyarevskaya; The Russian Academy of Sciences. Institute for Linguistic Research. - St. Petersburg: Folio-Press, 1998.

The dictionary presents the vocabulary of one of the complex and controversial moments in the history of the Russian language (1985-1997). For this purpose, about 5.5 thousand words and expressions were selected from the card index created by the author’s team, numbering about 2 million word usages, reflecting almost all spheres of modern life.

The dictionary provides extensive and varied information about the word: interpretation, examples in the form of sayings and quotes, encyclopedic data, stylistic characteristics, features of word usage, and, if necessary, etymology; the dictionary entry contains synonyms, antonyms, variants, stable combinations and phraseology; where necessary, the reference section provides information about the functioning of the word in the past and its semantic changes.

The dictionary is addressed to general linguists; those who are professionally associated with the Russian language (writers, journalists, translators, teachers and students), as well as everyone who is interested in the life and fate of the Russian language, both compatriots and foreigners. The Dictionary describes dynamic language processes that traditionally remain outside the scope of well-known academic dictionaries, including the latest editions of the Dictionary of the Russian Language by S. I. Ozhegov.

Mokienko V. M., Nikitina T. G. Explanatory dictionary of the Sov-Depiya language. - St. Petersburg: Folio-Press, 1998.

The dictionary contains descriptions of “Sovietisms” - words, idioms, proverbs, aphorisms that reflect the realities and ideologies of Soviet times. The dictionary entry includes their grammatical and stylistic characteristics, interpretation of the meaning, which in some cases is accompanied by etymological information. Illustrations from fiction, socio-political and scientific literature of the 20s - 90s. reveal the cultural and historical background of Sovietisms, allow us to trace their fate in the post-Soviet period (various re-interpretations, transformations).

Intended for specialist philologists, historians, political scientists, cultural experts and a wide range of readers interested in the Russian language and its history.

Modern dictionary of foreign words: OK. 20,000 words. - 2nd ed., erased. - M.: Russian language, 1999.

The dictionary contains about 20 thousand words borrowed by the Russian language from other languages ​​at different times, as well as words formed from elements of ancient Greek and Latin. The dictionary includes commonly used vocabulary, commonly used terms and terminological combinations in various fields of knowledge.

For each word, an interpretation and information about its origin (etymology) are given. The Dictionary takes into account the changes that have occurred in the language recently, new words and meanings are included, and existing interpretations of many words are revised.

Vasyukova I. A. Dictionary of foreign words. - M.: AST-PRESS, 1999.

The dictionary contains about 6,000 actively used words of foreign origin. Their interpretations, information about which language the word came to us from, grammatical properties (part of speech, declension, conjugation, case endings, gender, number, etc.), examples of use in speech, as well as synonyms (including original -but Russian, which can replace a foreign word).

This dictionary takes into account those major changes in the vocabulary of the modern Russian language that are associated with serious changes that took place in the socio-political, economic, cultural and other spheres of life of Russian society in the 80s - 90s. XX century.

Efremova T.F. New dictionary of the Russian language. Explanatory-word-educational. In 2v. - M.: Russian language, 2000.

The dictionary includes 250 thousand semantic units: almost 215 thousand meanings and over 50 thousand of their shades. Its dictionary contains over 156 thousand units, which represent all parts of speech existing in the Russian language, initial and final components of complex words, prefix and suffix word-forming morphemes, semanticized specifically for the dictionary, as well as lexical units consisting of more than one component, semantically equivalent to the word.

The dictionary is of interest to specialist philologists, translators, teachers of the Russian language and everyone who is interested in the life and fate of the Russian language.

Russian semantic dictionary. Explanatory dictionary, systematized by classes of words and meanings / RAS, Institute of Russian Language; under general ed. N. Yu. Shvedova. - M.: Azbukovnik, 1998.

The Russian Semantic Dictionary is a six-volume publication in which the system of modern Russian common vocabulary is presented in multi-level word classes. The primary unit of description in the Dictionary is the meaning of a word; such meanings are grouped by parts of speech and further by lexical-semantic classes of words and their individual participants.

The publication is addressed to linguists, lexicographers, teachers, as well as a wide range of people studying the Russian language or using the Dictionary in search of information about the whole class of words, as well as about an individual word and its meaning. The dictionary as a whole covers about 300,000 lexical units—the meanings of words and phraseological units. Each volume of the Dictionary is a separate completed work and can be used as an independent lexicographic study.

Dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language. In 2 volumes - L.: Nauka, 1970-1971.

The dictionary represents the first attempt at a complete description of synonyms of the modern Russian literary language with characteristics of their features and examples of the use of synonyms in literary Russian speech. Synonyms are collected in synonymous groups (rows). Each synonymous group is accompanied by characteristics of semantic and stylistic features, as well as features of the use in speech of those words that are included in the group. The dictionary serves as a guide to the correct use of synonyms. In total, the dictionary contains over 4 thousand dictionary entries.

Alexandrova Z. E. Dictionary of Russian synonyms: Practical reference book. - 10th ed., erased. - M.: Russian language, 1999.

The dictionary contains about 11 thousand synonymous rows, consisting of words and phrases that are identical or similar in meaning. For many synonyms, their compatibility and stylistic affiliation are indicated. This edition is a stereotypical repetition of the 6th, revised and expanded. The dictionary is designed for writers, translators, journalists, editors, and anyone who seeks to master the richness of the Russian language.

Gorbacheva K. Russian synonym dictionary. - St. Petersburg: RAS, 1996.

The Russian Synonym Dictionary includes about 4,000 synonyms. Each dictionary entry contains a brief description of the meaning, the necessary grammatical and detailed stylistic information about the word. The “Russian Synonymic Dictionary” provides a detailed combinability characteristics of synonyms.

New explanatory dictionary of synonyms of the Russian language/ under common hands. acad. Yu. D. Apresyan. — M.: School; Languages ​​of Russian culture, 1997.

The first issue of the Dictionary publishes 132 synonymous series, representing the main categories of anthropocentric vocabulary of the Russian language and, occasionally, some other layers of vocabulary.

The New Explanatory Dictionary of the Russian Language is an active type dictionary that implements the principles of systemic lexicography and is focused on reflecting the linguistic, or “naive” picture of the world. The focus on detailed linguistic portraiture is combined with the focus on a uniform description of lexemes belonging to the first lexicographical type. The Dictionary consistently reflects semantic, referential, pragmatic, communicative, syntactic, combinability, morphological and prosodic similarities and differences between synonyms, as well as conditions for neutralizing differences. All dictionary entries contain extensive reference areas that list phraseological synonyms, analogues, exact and inexact conversions, conversions to analogues, exact and inexact antonyms and derivatives (including semantic ones) to the elements of a given synonymous series. In some cases, special linguistic works devoted to one or more lexemes included in a given series are indicated.

The book is addressed to a wide range of philologists interested in lexicology, lexicography and theoretical semantics, to teachers of Russian as a native, non-native or foreign language, as well as writers, journalists and representatives of other professions dealing with the Russian language as an object of study or a tool of labor.

Vvedenskaya L. A. Dictionary of antonyms of the Russian language. - Ros-tov n/d: Phoenix, 1995.

“Dictionary of Antonyms” belongs to the group of seminymic words. It examines the problems of systemic relations in vocabulary, in particular the interaction between synonyms and antonyms, the influence of polysemy on the semantic relationships between words and on the formation of antonymic pairs; the principles of compiling a dictionary of antonyms are determined and antonyms of the Russian language are presented in a systematized form. The book can serve as a guide for conducting practical and seminar classes in the modern Russian language. Its material can be used when giving lectures on lexicology and lexicography, as well as when teaching Russian to students.

Audience: scientists, teachers and students of philology, journalists, writers, translators, editors, school teachers, etc.

Kolesnikov N.P. Dictionary of homonyms. - Rostov n/d: Phoenix, 1995.

The dictionary consists of words that have different lexical meanings, but the same spelling and pronunciation. They are interpreted in dictionary entries that make up 3,500 nests of homonyms.

Kolesnikov N.P. Dictionary of paronyms and antonyms. - Rostov n/d: Phoenix, 1995.

Semonymic dictionaries include dictionaries of synonyms, homonyms, antonyms and paronyms. Of these, the last two are presented in this dictionary.

The “Dictionary of Paronyms” contains 3000 similar-sounding words, which, mixed in use, are mistakenly used one instead of another.

The “Dictionary of Antonyms” contains more than 1,300 pairs of words that represent lexical units that are opposite in any one respect.

Ageenko F. L., Zarva M. V. Dictionary of accents for radio and television workers.- 5th ed., revised. and additional - M.: Russian language, 1984.

The dictionary contains about 75 thousand words. It contains geographical names that are difficult to pronounce, names and surnames of political figures, scientists, artists, writers, actors, names of newspapers, magazines, telegraph agencies, musical works, as well as words and their forms, the placement of stress in which can cause difficulty. The dictionary specifies a unified pronunciation standard for all radio and television workers.

Orthoepic dictionary of the Russian language: Pronunciation, stress, grammatical forms / S. N. Borunova, V.L. Vorontsova, N.A. Eskova; edited by R. I. Avanesova; RAS. Institute rus. language — 6th ed., erased. - M.: Russian language, 1997.

The dictionary contains about 65 thousand words of the modern Russian language. It gives information about the pronunciation, stress and formation of grammatical forms of the words included in it. It has extensively developed a system of normative recommendations and introduced prohibitive regulations. In this edition, the dictionary has been replenished, normative recommendations have been clarified, and the presentation of some categories of words has been developed in more detail.

The dictionary is designed for philologists, Russian language teachers, lecturers, radio and television announcers. For other readers, the dictionary can serve as a reliable normative reference tool.

Russian spelling dictionary: about 160,000 words / Ros. acad. Sci. Institute rus. language them. V. V. Vinogradova; Editorial Board: V. V. Lopatin (chief editor), B. Z. Bukchina, N. A. Eskova, etc. - M.: Azbukovnik, 1999.

The new academic “Russian Spelling Dictionary” reflects the vocabulary of the Russian literary language in its state that developed by the end of the 20th century. Compared to the previous academic “Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language”, published in 1956-1998. (editions 1-33), the volume of the dictionary has been increased by more than one and a half times. The dictionary contains about 160 thousand units (words and word combinations) in their standard spelling, with emphasis and the necessary grammatical information. An innovation that distinguishes this dictionary from the previous one is the inclusion of words written with a capital letter and combinations with such words, including words written in different meanings and uses with both capital and lowercase letters.

Being a normative, generally binding reference manual, the dictionary is intended for the widest range of users.

Spelling dictionary of the Russian language/ RAS. Institute rus. language; editorial board: V.V. Lopatin (chief editor), B.Z. Bukchina, L.P. Kalakutskaya and others -34th ed., erased. - M.: Russian language, 1999.

The dictionary contains about 100 thousand words in their standard spelling, with emphasis and the necessary grammatical information. This edition is a stereotypical repetition of the 29th revised and expanded edition.

The dictionary is designed for a wide range of readers.

Buchkina B.Z. Spelling dictionary of the Russian language: Slit-but? Apart? Hyphenated?- M.: - AST-PRESS, 1999.

The dictionary contains about 60,000 words. Here are collected all the difficult cases of their combined, separate or hyphenated spelling.

For the first time in a dictionary of this type, grammatical forms, explanations, comparisons with other similar words, and examples of correct use are given for all words.

Lopatin V.V., Cheltsova L.K., Nechaeva I.V. Uppercase or lowercase?: Spelling dictionary of the Russian language. - M.: - AST-PRESS, 1999.

The dictionary is devoted to one of the most difficult problems of modern Russian spelling - the use of capital letters. In modern writing practice, this area of ​​spelling is the least stable and orderly. The dictionary bases its recommendations on a new edition of the rules for the use of capital letters, published here for the first time, which are taken into account in the new normative academic spelling dictionary of the Russian language. Intended for a wide range of users.

Includes 15,000 words and phrases.

Vvedenskaya L. A., Chervinsky P. P. Russian pronunciation and spelling: Dictionary-reference book. - Rostov n/d: Phoenix, 1996.

Unlike other spelling and orthoepic dictionaries, in the Dictionary-Reference Book “Russian Pronunciation and Spelling”, along with the spelling, pronunciation and stress accepted in the literary language, all possible options are given, which are accompanied by the corresponding marks. The dictionary allows the reader not only to determine how to correctly pronounce or write a particular word, but also to find out the peculiarities of its pronunciation, and in some cases, spelling, to understand what it is connected with and what is caused by it.

The clear structure of dictionary entries, the prominent arrangement of words, the use of different fonts, the presence of marks and the necessary explanations make the dictionary material visual and greatly facilitate the work on it.

A reference dictionary is necessary for everyone who strives to correctly write and pronounce words in the Russian language, who cares about improving the culture of their speech.

A Complete Guide to Spelling and Punctuation/ed. O. A. Soboleva. - M.: AST-PRESS, 1999.

This book is both a reference and a training manual: you can easily and quickly find the information you need, or you can use the book to take an intensive, systematic course in spelling and master the skills of competent writing.

The reference material is compiled on the basis of the laws of psychology and information perception. It includes rules, examples, comments, as well as tables, diagrams and algorithms that help you navigate the material and learn it faster.

As additional material, material is included that talks about various ways of applying rules, the development of spelling vigilance and spelling intuition, and techniques for handling spellings and punctograms. A well-thought-out system of training texts will help ensure the effectiveness of these techniques. Keys are provided for the most complex texts.

Kolesnikov N.P. Lexico-grammatical dictionary of the Russian language. - Rostov n/d: Phoenix, 1996.

The “Dictionary of Indeclinable Words” contains more than 2,000 such indeclinable nouns and other invariable words, most of which have entered the Russian language from the languages ​​of many peoples of the world. The correct assimilation of such words makes it difficult for the Russian reader, so they are not only interpreted in the dictionary, but are also accompanied by appropriate grammatical marks and an indication of pronunciation.

The “Dictionary of Monosyllabic Words (Monosyllabic)” contains up to 4,000 rare and borrowed words from different parts of speech, which are monosyllabic in one form or another. The dictionary serves as a reliable reference for the formation of the corresponding monosyllabic forms and for difficulties in their pronunciation and writing.

Vakurov V.N., Rakhmanova L.I., Tolstoy N.V., Formanovskaya N.I. Difficulties of the Russian language. Dictionary-reference book/ ed. L. I. Rakhmanova. - 3rd ed., rev. and additional - Part 1 A-L.-M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1993; Part 2 M-Ya. - M.: Moscow State University Publishing House, 1994.

The reference dictionary includes articles devoted to difficult issues of distinguishing words with similar meanings: new word usages that are most often found in the newspaper, as well as difficulties associated with the presence of variant grammatical forms and syntactic compatibility.

The dictionary is compiled on the basis of materials from newspapers, socio-political and popular science magazines, radio and television programs mainly for the period from 1963 to 1992, as well as texts of fiction. The dictionary contains 858 vocabulary units.

Lexical difficulties of the Russian language: Reference dictionary: Ok. 13,000 words / A. A. Semenyuk (leader of the writing team), I. L. Gorodetskaya, M. A. Matyushina, etc. - M.: Russian language, 1994.

The dictionary contains words whose lexical meanings may present certain difficulties for the reader. This is predominantly book vocabulary, as well as cross-style vocabulary with a relatively low frequency of use, found in classical and modern literature.

The dictionary entry contains the interpretation of the word, grammatical and stylistic characteristics, information about the origin of the word, illustrations in the form of sayings and quotations from fiction. Phraseological combinations, synonyms and antonyms for the described word are given. Some of the derived words are placed in the word-formation nest.

The dictionary is addressed to teachers of the Russian language and literature, students, as well as a wide range of readers.

Efremova T. F., Kostomarov V. G. Dictionary of grammatical difficulties of the Russian language.- 5th ed., erased. - M.: Russian language, 1997.

The dictionary is an experience of an aspect lexicographical manual and represents a linguistic description for educational purposes of complex phenomena of Russian morphology. It consists of two parts. The first part of the dictionary systematizes 18 grammatical categories of three parts of speech: noun, adjective and verb. The second part of the dictionary includes about 2.5 thousand entries, each of which is devoted to a word marked by difficulties, which are described in the first part.

The dictionary is intended for a wide range of readers studying the Russian language.

Dictionary of combinability of words of the Russian language. - 2nd ed., rev. - M.: Russian language, 1983.

The dictionary contains 2.5 thousand dictionary entries. For the first time in Russian lexicography, it provides a systematic and fairly complete description of the associative properties of the most common Russian words. The use of phrases is illustrated with examples from artistic, journalistic and popular science works, as well as from colloquial speech. The dictionary is strictly normative.

Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language/ed. A. I. Molotkova. - 6th ed. - M.: Russian language, 1997.

The dictionary is a new type of explanatory dictionary, in which for the first time over 4 thousand developments of phraseological units of the Russian language are given. The dictionary contains interpretations of the meanings of phraseological units, various shapes their uses, their synonyms and antonyms, and in some cases - information about the origin of phraseological units. Using examples from classical and modern Russian literature, it is shown how phraseological units are used in speech.

Melerovich A. M., Mokienko V. M. Phraseologisms in Russian speech: Dictionary. - M.: Russian dictionaries, 1997.

The dictionary represents the first experience in world lexicographic practice of describing idioms and proverbs in their variety of variants and speech dynamics. Each dictionary entry reflects the real life of phraseological units (PU) in classical and modern literary and journalistic speech, the originality of the use of PU by different authors. At the end of the dictionary entry, a historical and etymological commentary is necessarily given. The dictionary includes over 500 of the most common phraseological units, presented in more than 6,000 individual author’s modifications. Most of the illustrations are selected from texts of recent decades that are not displayed in other Russian dictionaries.

The dictionary is intended for students, teachers, journalists, and writers.

Phraseological dictionary of the Russian literary language. In 2 volumes / comp. A. I. Fedorov. - M.: Citadel, 1997.

The dictionary contains more than 12,000 phraseological units. After each phraseological turn, interpretations of its meanings and stylistic characteristics are given; on examples from fiction and journalism of the 18th-20th centuries. shows how phraseological units are used in speech. This is the most complete phraseological dictionary of the Russian language.

Felitsyna V. P., Mokienko V. M. Russian phraseological dictionary. - M.: EKSMO-PRESS, 1999.

Language is the most important means of human communication and transmission of thoughts, as well as a mirror of national culture. Phraseologisms, proverbs, sayings, and popular expressions are of considerable importance for the expressiveness of a language. This dictionary includes phraseological units used in colloquial speech and found in works of Russian literature and journalism.

Zhukov V. P. Dictionary of Russian proverbs and sayings. - 4th ed., rev. and additional - M.: Russian language, 1991.

The dictionary contains about 1200 proverbs and sayings, widely used in the Russian language. The dictionary explains the meaning of those proverbs and sayings, the meaning of which is not clear from the words included in them. The illustrations show how a proverb or saying is used in speech.

Ashukin N. S., Ashukina M. G. Winged words: Winged words, literary quotes, figurative expressions. - 4th ed., add. - M.: Fiction, 1988.

The book contains popular words that have entered our speech from literary sources and explains the meaning and origin of these words. It also includes the names of heroes of literary works, ancient myths that have become household names, and figurative, condensed characteristics of outstanding historical figures.

Belyanin V. P., Butenko I. A. Live speech. Dictionary of colloquial expressions. - M.: PAIMS, 1994.

The dictionary contains 2558 stable colloquial expressions of the modern Russian language, often repeated in typical communication situations. Interpretations, original expressions, and lexico-syntactic options are provided.

For the first time, using material from the Russian language, expressions have been collected that occupy an intermediate place between stable units of the language and small folklore works. Lasting comparisons, greetings and farewells, wishes, slogans, proverbs, sayings, maxims common sense, alterations of catch words and other standard remarks in typical situations, as well as quotes from popular films and cartoons, literary works, and anecdotes.

System dictionaries.

whole (noun) - 3 weight

whole (local) - 4 weight

Russian spelling dictionary.

about 160,000 words / Russian Academy of Sciences. Institute rus. language them. V. V. Vinogradova: Editorial Board: V. V. Lopatin (chief editor), B. Z. Bukchina, N. A. Eskova, etc. - Moscow: "Azbukovnik", 199

GENERAL CHARACTERISTICS OF THE DICTIONARY.

The new "Russian Spelling Dictionary", being a normative reference book for a wide range of users, reflects the vocabulary of the Russian literary language of the mid-90s of the 20th century. Along with active, commonly used vocabulary, the dictionary includes colloquial, dialect (regional), slang, obsolete words, historicisms - to the extent that these categories of words are reflected in fiction, in newspaper, journalistic and colloquial speech. Special terminology of various fields of scientific knowledge and practical activity occupies a significant place in the dictionary.

The dictionary was prepared in the sector of spelling and spelling of the Institute of Russian Language. V. V. Vinogradov RAS. E. V. Beshenkova, S. N. Borunova, L. P. Kalakutskaya, N. V. Mamina, I. V. Nechaeva took part in the work on the dictionary at different stages.

The dictionary gives the correct spellings of words and their forms, as well as some types of verbal compounds, one way or another correlating with the words. Such compounds include, for example, separately and hyphenated combinations of words, similar in structure and meaning to words written together (bread and salt, launch vehicle, read-re-read, vital), prepositional-case combinations similar to adverbs ( in principle, at retail, on the go, out of habit), compound names in which one word (or more) is written with a capital letter ( The State Duma, Black Sea).

Compared to the "Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language", published in 1956 - 1998. (editions 1 - 33), the vocabulary of this dictionary has been significantly expanded (from 100 to 160 thousand units). Particular attention is paid to the vocabulary of those conceptual areas that have been updated in recent years: first of all, to church and religious vocabulary, terminology of the market, business, banking, programming, computer technology, etc. The range of common noun vocabulary has been replenished with a variety of new words and expressions characteristic of for modern newspaper, journalistic, colloquial speech and vernacular. The representation of derived words has been significantly increased. The range of separately written (non-word) units included in the dictionary has been expanded, and, first of all, the functional equivalents of a word.

The fundamental difference between the new dictionary and the “Spelling Dictionary of the Russian Language” is the inclusion of words written with a capital letter (the authors of the previous dictionary did not aim to reflect such spellings).

The following categories of words written with capital letters and their combinations are presented as independent vocabulary units in the “Russian Spelling Dictionary”:

1) proper names (personal, literary, mythological, geographical), also used in a common sense, for example: Hamlet, Gargantua, Plyushkin, Mitrofanushka, Munchausen, Apollo, Nemesis, Cassandra, Themis, Rothschild, Juvenal, Mecca, Vendée, Hiroshima , Chernobyl, Cheryomushki;

2) names of sacred concepts of religion, for example: Lord, Mother of God, Bible, Gospel, Koran, Holy Scripture, Christmas, Candlemas, Exaltation, God the Father, Holy Gifts, Mother of God, Resurrection of Christ, Holy Sepulcher;

3) names of historical eras, for example: Reformation, Risorgimento, Quattrocento, Proto-Renaissance;

4) geographical and other names formed according to the word-formation models of common nouns, for example: Moscow region, Volga region, Transcaucasia, Orenburg region, Oryol region, Vologda region, Podkamennaya Tunguska, Vodovzvodnaya Tower, (Andrey) First-Called, (Simeon) God-Receiver;

5) proper names (personal, mythological, geographical), acting as part of stable combinations - such as, for example: Archimedes' law, Boyle-Mariotte's law, Newton's binomial, Morse code, Geiger counter, Kalashnikov assault rifle, Lynching, Hippocratic oath, Botkin's disease, two-faced Janus, faithless Thomas; between Scylla and Charybdis, cross the Rubicon, sink into oblivion; where Makar did not drive the calves; Ivans, who do not remember their kinship; Greenwich, Celsius, Richter scale (the corresponding combinations can be found in the dictionary for words written in these combinations with a capital letter);

6) compound names (geographical, astronomical, names of historical persons, mythological and literary characters, historical eras and events, calendar periods and holidays, organizations and institutions, states and state associations), including common nouns (including words not used in their own direct meaning), for example: Moscow River, Mediterranean Sea, Sergiev Posad, Tsarskoe Selo, Far East, Great Wall of China, Land of the Rising Sun, Eternal city, Golden Horde, Poklonnaya Gora, Milky Way, Peter the Great, Ivan Tsarevich, Serpent Gorynych, Middle Ages, First World War, St. Bartholomew's Night, Battle of Kulikovo, last supper, Holy Week, Great Lent, Elijah's Day, Trinity Day, New Year, May Day, Paris Commune, United Nations, Russian Federation, Commonwealth of Independent States, Federal Assembly, State Duma.

Dictionaries of foreign words.

New dictionary of foreign words. Zakharenko E. N., Komarova L. N., Nechaeva I. V.

25,000 words and phrases. – M.: “Azbukovnik”, 2003.

COMPOSITION OF THE DICTIONARY

"The New Dictionary of Foreign Words" is intended for a wide range of readers, of different ages, education, with different interests and requests, who will find in it information about the meaning of the word, its origin (etymology), scope of use, spelling and stress.
In its structure and the information it contains, the Dictionary continues the tradition of dictionaries of foreign words that have developed in Russian lexicography. Being a dictionary of foreign words of the classical type, it reflects foreign language vocabulary in the Russian language systematically, in its entirety, including borrowings from past historical eras, new words that have appeared in the Russian language in recent decades, established terminology related to various fields of knowledge, non-terminological, everyday vocabulary.

The basis of the Dictionary is made up of commonly used vocabulary, widely used in various spheres of life (science and technology, politics, art, religion, sports, etc.), as well as words and expressions found in everyday life. The Dictionary includes direct borrowings from various languages, including from the languages ​​of the peoples of the former USSR, internationalisms, as well as words formed in the Russian language from elements of Greek, Latin and other languages.

The following are given as separate vocabulary units in the Dictionary: words themselves, stable combinations of various types, the first and second parts of compound words, some prefixes.

When working on the “New Dictionary of Foreign Words”, explanatory and encyclopedic dictionaries were used recent years, special dictionaries in various fields of knowledge (especially in computer science, economics, art, cultural studies, religion, ecology, music, sports), as well as dictionaries of foreign words that have been published recently: traditional - "Modern Dictionary of Foreign Words", philological dictionaries foreign words - "Explanatory Dictionary of Foreign Words" by L.P. Krysin, and dictionaries that record only foreign language neologisms, words that have recently appeared in the language, which are at different stages of mastering them in the Russian language. Words were selected and carefully examined that were not described in the lexicographic literature, but were often found in press materials, popular science and fiction, heard on radio and television.

The basis for developing the principles for selecting words, forming a dictionary, and constructing a dictionary entry was the time-tested and reader-recognized “Modern Dictionary of Foreign Words” (M., “Russian Language”, 1992).

The relevance of the "New Dictionary of Foreign Words" is due to the fact that it makes an attempt to reflect the linguistic situation in terms of the entry of borrowings into the Russian language at a given historical moment, at the turn of the 20th-21st centuries.

The Dictionary includes foreign (foreign) words that have long been included in the Russian language and constitute the base array in dictionaries of foreign words; they belong to the category of “old” words, known to the reader, that are no longer perceived as foreign. These are, for example, the names of old social institutions, the realities of old life, and individual names of clothing found in fiction.

The dictionary contains systematically presented terminology of various sciences, includes a large number of terms and terminological combinations; their interpretations reflect the current state of knowledge.

When working on the dictionary, special attention was paid to that part of the terminological vocabulary that previously remained outside the dictionaries due to its highly specialized nature, but has now become commonly used and widespread (alloplant, default, immunodeficiency, implantology, installation, cloning, copyright, nuclear, passionary , performance, sequestration, suicide, testing, identikit, bypass surgery, etc.)

The Dictionary also includes individual thematic groups of foreign words, which for some reason did not previously find a place in dictionaries (explanatory and foreign words) and are now rightly returning to the lexicographical mainstream. These are, for example, words from the sphere of religion, names of rituals, church attributes, religious buildings (Advent, antiphonary, antiphonal chant, stichera, stupa, tantra, triodion, phelonion, banner, etc.), words related to life, everyday life, art other peoples and states, which have become widespread in our country due to the expansion and deepening of international and interstate contacts (bonsai, hamburger, gohua, green card, intifada, karaoke, contras).

Translation dictionaries.

English-Russian dictionary. Dubrovin M. I.

English-Russian Dictionary: A Manual for Students. - 2nd ed. - M.: Education, 1991.

The dictionary is a textbook for senior secondary school students. It is intended for students to work independently on texts of average difficulty.

The dictionary is compiled in accordance with the requirements of the school curriculum in foreign languages ​​for secondary schools. It contains approximately 8,000 words.

The first edition was published in 1985 under the title: “School English-Russian Dictionary.”

This dictionary is compiled for senior secondary school students. It contains approximately 8,000 words.

The English language, like Russian, consists of many tens of thousands of words. Thus, the largest dictionary of the English language contains more than 600,000 words, and the largest English-Russian dictionary contains about 150,000 words. However, not all words in a language are used equally often. A lot of research has been done and even several dictionaries have been published that indicate how often a particular English word is used. Using these dictionaries and analyzing a large number of popular science and socio-political texts, we selected these 8,000 most common words.

The main task of this dictionary is to reveal the meanings of English words in Russian. It also contains a lot of other information about English words. In order to fully use the information contained in the dictionary and master the ability to quickly find the desired word or meaning, you need to have a good knowledge of the structure of the dictionary and the system of abbreviations (notations) adopted in the dictionary. Therefore, before using the dictionary, you must carefully read the contents of the introductory article.

What does a dictionary consist of?

The dictionary consists of headwords and dictionary entries.

A headword is a word in bold type whose meaning is explained and often illustrated with examples.

All capital words, including geographical names, are located in the dictionary in alphabetical order." Moreover, if the first two letters in words are the same, then the words are arranged taking into account the sequence of the third letters. If the first three letters are the same, then the fourth letters are taken into account, etc.

Electronic dictionaries.

Types of linguistic dictionaries

The role of dictionaries in the modern world is great. The dictionary form of presenting material (convenient for quickly obtaining the necessary information) is becoming more and more popular in our dynamic, information-rich age. French lexicographer Alan Ray called modern civilization a civilization of dictionaries. Today, the role of dictionaries in the spiritual life of society and in understanding the cultural heritage of the people is increasingly realized. As noted by Kozyrev V.A. and Chernyak V.D., “the alarming decline in the general level of speech culture makes us especially acutely aware of the role of the dictionary as the most important and irreplaceable tool that develops the skills of a conscious attitude towards one’s speech.”

There are two main types of dictionaries based on their content: encyclopedic and linguistic. The object of description in an encyclopedic dictionary and encyclopedia is various objects, phenomena and concepts; the object of description in a linguistic dictionary is a unit of language, most often a word. The purpose of the description in a linguistic dictionary is to provide information not about the designated object itself, but about the linguistic unit (its meaning, compatibility, etc.), but the nature of the information provided by the dictionary varies depending on the type of linguistic dictionary.

Most people have to deal with only a few “classical” types of dictionaries: explanatory ones, which one turns to when wanting to find out the meaning of some (usually incomprehensible) word; bilingual; spelling and spelling, in which they ask about how to correctly write or pronounce a particular word; and perhaps etymological. In reality, the variety of types of dictionaries is much greater. Almost all of them are presented in the Russian lexicographical tradition and are accessible to the Russian reader.

The primary function of a dictionary is to describe the meanings of words, and the dictionary descriptions, or interpretations, should be clear and understandable, if possible without the use of words that are less common and less understandable than the word itself. Usually the more common meanings are interpreted first, followed by the rarer ones. Because the exact meaning of a word often depends on context, more detailed dictionaries provide examples of how words are used in different contexts.

In addition to interpretations and examples of use, dictionaries include a rich store of linguistic information. They are a generally accepted source of information about the correct spelling and pronunciation of words, giving preferred and alternative pronunciations and spellings in cases where more than one is allowed, as in Russian. galoshes and galoshes. Dictionaries can also provide grammatical information, etymology of words (their origin and historical development), derived forms in cases where they are unusual or their formation is difficult, synonyms and antonyms. Larger dictionaries include technical terms, place names, foreign words, and biographical entries. More often, however, these types of information are distributed across different types more private dictionaries.

Since the fast pace of modern life corresponds to constant changes in language, dictionaries must be updated in accordance with the requirements of the time. New words should be included in frequently republished dictionaries in the order in which they are added. Equally important are completeness and thoroughness. The most comprehensive are complete (as opposed to abridged) dictionaries. The criteria for choosing a dictionary depend on the age of the user and the situations in which he intends to work with the dictionary. For example, the complex structure of dictionaries for adults can frustrate and scare away younger students, and therefore special dictionaries are compiled for primary and secondary schools.

Dictionaries.

EDITIONS OF V. I. DAL’S “EXPLANATORY DICTIONARY OF THE LIVING GREAT RUSSIAN LANGUAGE”

Many dictionaries have been created in the world, surprising with their volume and richness of content. But perhaps the most outstanding of them is “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language - Vladimir Ivanovich Dahl. The importance of the dictionary for Russian culture and education is especially great. Dalev's dictionary is a fascinating read about the Russian language, its life and history. Having opened the page of any volume, you are immersed in truly folk speech, figurative, clear, simple.

Dahl began collecting words for his dictionary when he was still eighteen years old and worked on it until the last days of his life.

The first edition of V. I. Dahl’s “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” was published in 1863-1866. This was the result of almost half a century of work, as a result of which the scientist collected, studied and systematized a huge stock of words and phraseological expressions of the Russian language.

V.I. Dal sought to include all vocabulary in his dictionary, including words taken both from written monuments and from oral folk speech. He based the dictionary on the living Great Russian language - a folk language with all regional dialects and dialects. V. I. Dal collected these lexical materials on his own during trips around the country for 40 years. In addition, the name of V. I. Dal as a scientist and collector of living Russian speech was widely known among the Russian intelligentsia, and therefore, starting from 1840, he systematically received records of folk words and phraseological units, either from numerous correspondents, or through the editors of periodicals , who published dialectological articles or received recordings of folk words from collectors.

In his work on the dictionary, V. I. Dal could not help but use the rich previous lexicographical tradition. He wrote about this in his “Parting Words” for the dictionary. First of all, V.I. Dal was guided by the most complete of the dictionaries of the Russian language - “Dictionary of the Church Slavonic and Russian Language”, compiled by the Second Branch of the Imperial Academy of Sciences (St. Petersburg, vols. 1-4, 1847). This choice is due to the fact that this dictionary was a major phenomenon in the history of Russian lexicography. The academic dictionary enjoyed well-deserved authority in advanced Russian society at the end of the 1st half of the 19th century.

Simultaneously with this explanatory dictionary of the Russian language, V. I. Dal widely used dialect dictionaries of folk dialects and dictionaries of trades and crafts: “The experience of the regional Great Russian dictionary”, compiled by the Second Department of the Imperial Academy of Sciences (St. Petersburg, 1852), “Addition to the experience of the regional Great Russian Dictionary" (St. Petersburg, 1858), "Experience of a terminological dictionary of agriculture, manufacturing, crafts and folk life" Vl. Burnashev (St. Petersburg, vols. 1-2, 1843-1844).

In total, according to V. I. Dahl’s calculations, the first edition of the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” contained about 200,000 words. Of these, he collected 80,000 words on his own. He extracted approximately 120,000 words and expressions from previous dictionaries. But V. I. Dal transferred all this lexical material into his dictionary not mechanically: he reworked it and supplemented it with new data. V. I. Dal arranged words into nests, removed stylistic marks, excluded “completely outdated words” from the scope of his work, clarified the semantic characteristics of words and phraseological units, revised the system of local dialect marks, introduced marks for words of foreign origin, indicating the nearest sources borrowing. Having introduced into his work the vocabulary of the literary and book language and partly the verbal fund of monuments of old literature and thereby proving the need to bring the literary language closer to living folk speech, V. I. Dal created a dictionary that has become the most authoritative historical and lexicological reference book for the study of the Russian language XIX century and subsequent time.

After the release of the first edition of the Explanatory Dictionary, reviews and reviews of scientists, writers, and public figures appeared. The dictionary becomes the center around which various lexicographic works are carried out, directly or indirectly outlined by V. I. Dahl. Additions and notes to the dictionary appear indicating words that exist in the Russian language, but were not taken into account by V. I. Dahl for some reason. V.I. Dal collects these materials for further replenishment and correction of the dictionary, thereby preparing a stock of words and phraseological expressions for the second edition.

The second edition of the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” was published in 1880-1882 after the death of V. I. Dahl. True, he managed to make major changes, additions and amendments to the new edition, although this work was finally carried out by the editors of the bookseller-publisher M. O. Wolf, who acquired the right to publish the dictionary from the heirs of V. I. Dal, and by the scientific editor (it is assumed that that it was Professor P.N. Polevoy).

When preparing the second edition, V.I. Dal did not set himself the task of revising the principles of constructing the dictionary. As before, he retained the root-word (cluster) method of grouping words, in which groups of words, raised to a common root, are combined into nests, and the original word or the root itself is placed at the head of the nest, as was done in the “Dictionary of the Russian Academy” (St. Petersburg ., 1789-1794). The main work for the second edition of the dictionary was carried out in the following directions: the lexical and phraseological material was supplemented and expanded (over 1,500 new words, about 300 proverbs and sayings were introduced into the dictionary), and the semantic characteristics of a number of words were clarified. In addition, Dahl eliminated a number of dubious words, rearranged several header and intra-nest words and corrected some incorrectly constructed nest articles, clarified the etymology and spelling of words and phraseological units.

Of the numerous critical analyzes of the dictionary published during V. I. Dahl’s lifetime, the additions and amendments of J. K. Grot and L. I. Shrenk deserve to be noted. After the death of V. I. Dahl, additions and notes to the dictionary of I. F. Naumov and P. V. Shein, which were of fundamental scientific importance, were published, which were taken into account by the editors of the second edition. From critical analyzes of the dictionary and additions to it, V. I. Dal, as well as the editors, introduced over 550 new words and expressions into the second edition of the dictionary.

The third edition of the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” was published in 1903 - 1909. Before embarking on a new edition of the dictionary, the publishing house "M. O. Wolf's Partnership" turns to many outstanding experts on the Russian language - academicians, professors, writers, including A. A. Shakhmatov, A. I. Sobolevsky, A. N. Pypin, E. F. Budde, S. K. Bulich, A. F. Koni, D. L. Mordovtsev, S. A. Vengerov - with a request to express their opinion whether the new edition of the dictionary should be completely revised in accordance with the comments critics and reviewers, or keep it in its original form, only correcting obvious errors and adding new materials.

The editor of the third edition introduced new words and expressions into the text of the dictionary, which for various reasons were absent in the first two editions. First of all, this includes words from the notes of I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay himself, which he kept during his professorship at Kazan University (1875-1883). Basically, these are dialect records of words and expressions with the names of those provinces in which I. A. Baudouin de Courtenay visited. The following examples can serve as an example of such entries: vgarkat vyat. “to cry out in a rough voice, to shout loudly”; woboloko zap. "cloud", etc.

In 1935, the State Publishing House “Khudozhestvennaya Literatura” published the “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language”, produced by phototype, with an introductory article written by A. M. Sukhotin. This facsimile edition reproduces the text of the second edition of 1880-1882. In 1955 (with a repetition in 1956), the State Publishing House of Foreign and National Dictionaries launched a new edition of V. I. Dahl’s dictionary with an introductory article by A. M. Babkin (it was also typed and printed from the second edition of 1880-1882). This edition of the dictionary eliminated spelling errors and typos of the second edition. The publishing house "Russian Language" in 1978-1980 (with a repetition in 1981-1982) published another edition of the dictionary. It reproduces in a reduced format by photomechanical means the 1955 edition, which in turn was typeset and printed from the second edition. This edition also reproduces the 1955 edition. Thus, V.I. Dahl’s “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language” is published in its eighth (and, taking into account repetitions in 1956 and 1981-1982, tenth) edition.

One-volume dictionary of the Russian language.

INFORMATION REQUIRED FOR USING THE DICTIONARY. COMPOSITION OF THE DICTIONARY.

§ I. The one-volume dictionary of the Russian language is a guide to the correct use of words, to the correct formation of their forms, to the correct pronunciation, as well as to the correct spelling of words in the modern Russian literary language.

The modern Russian literary language is the national Russian language in its literary form, serving as a means of communication and exchange of thoughts in all areas of life and activity, an instrument of cultural development of the people. The vocabulary of the Russian literary language of our era is rich and complex: it is the product of the entire centuries-old development of the Russian language up to our Soviet era, reflecting, therefore, the changes that occurred in it in connection with the development of Soviet society, its culture, science and technology. But a one-volume dictionary cannot set itself the task of reflecting the entire diversity of the vocabulary of the modern Russian literary language.

§ 2. In accordance with the objectives of the dictionary, as a rule, it does not contain:

1) special words that are narrowly professional, private terms of a particular branch of science and technology and which are necessary only for a relatively limited circle of workers in a particular specialty;

2) local, dialect words, if they are not used widely enough as part of the literary language as a means of expression;

3) words with a clearly expressed rude connotation;

4) ancient or outdated words that have fallen out of the language, practically unnecessary from the point of view of modern linguistic communication, understanding of immediate historical reality or texts of classical literature;

5) compound and compound words, as well as letter abbreviations, if they do not have a new connotation in meaning compared to the meaning of the phrase from which they arose, or if they do not go beyond the limits of relatively narrow, professional use;

6) proper names of various types - personal, geographical, names of institutions, etc.

Dictionary of the Russian language.V 4 volumes / USSR Academy of Sciences, Institute of Russian. language; Ed. A. P. Evgenieva. – 2nd ed., rev. and additional – M.: Russian language, 1981–1984.

1.How to use a dictionary. Composition of the Dictionary

The dictionary contains commonly used vocabulary and phraseology of the modern Russian literary language. The material basis for the Dictionary was the card index of the Dictionary Sector of the Russian Language Institute of the USSR Academy of Sciences, containing selections from works of fiction from Pushkin to the present day, as well as from works of journalistic and scientific literature in its classical examples of the 19th-20th centuries.

In accordance with the objectives of the Dictionary, it does not include:

a) regional words, with the exception of those that are widely represented in works of art various authors or designate objects, phenomena, concepts that are especially important and characteristic of the life, everyday life, etc. of the population of a particular region and widely known outside its borders (baz, beetroot, gutor, etc.);

b) many words of rough vernacular;

c) obsolete words that have fallen out of use, with the exception of those that were widespread in the literature of the 19th century;

d) the Dictionary also does not include highly specialized terms in certain fields of science, technology, and the arts, which are necessary only for specialists.

Due to the limited space of the Dictionary, the following categories of words are also not given.

a) proper names (personal, geographical, names of institutions, etc.), as well as common nouns, which are the names of residents of cities and localities (Leningrader, Muscovite, Volgar, etc.);

b) those groups of derived words that are easily formed and easily understood: 1) derived nouns, if they have no meanings other than those introduced by suffixes: nouns with suffixes of emotional evaluation (diminutive, endearing, derogatory, dismissive, augmentative); many of the names of the character are masculine and feminine, derived from verbs and adjectives, for example: questioner, questioner, whitener, whitener; little-used nouns with an abstract meaning of property, quality and state with the suffixes -ost, -is, derived from adjectives and participles, for example: inclusion, indifference, multi-colored, striped; 2) adjectives with suffixes -ovat-, -evat-, expressing incompleteness or weakening of a quality, for example: whitish, bluish, adjectives with suffixes of emotional evaluation (diminutive, endearing, intensifying); many possessive adjectives with the suffixes -ov, -ev and -in, for example: tenants, girls; compound adjectives denoting shades of colors, for example, crimson red; 3) adverbs in -ski, -ь and with the prefix po-, for example: in a human manner, in a bearish way; adverbs formed from the dative case singular. including an adjective with the prefix po-, for example: at home;

c) abbreviations (which are letter abbreviations) are not given in the Dictionary, with the exception of those that have entered the language as words that have gender and change by case.

Note. A list of commonly used abbreviations in the modern Russian language is given in the appendix to the fourth volume.

System dictionaries.

Dictionary of morphemes of the Russian language Kuznetsova A. I., Efremova T. F.

The dictionary consists of the Root, Prefix and Suffix parts, as well as the Index and Applications.

The structure of the Root, Prefix and Suffix parts of the dictionary is described in detail in the introductory article “Principles of morphemic analysis and construction of a dictionary of morphemes”.

The dictionary index is an alphabetical list of all words included in the dictionary. To the right of the word after the dash sign is its root. Homonymous roots are indicated, as in the dictionary corpus, with Arabic numerals. For example:

turn back - 1 gate gate - 2 gates

For homonymous words, a brief semantically distinctive indication of one nature or another is given in brackets (interpretation through a synonym, through a phrase), an indication of the part of speech, etc. For example:

to memorize (about notches) - tooth

memorize (about memorization) - bison

whole (noun) - 3 weight

whole (local) - 4 weight

The dictionary contains about 52,000 words, made up of approximately 5,000 morphemes (morphemes are given in their written form).

All dictionaries are divided into encyclopedic and linguistic. Encyclopedia presents in a concise form the current state of scientific knowledge in any field, i.e. describes the world, explains concepts, gives biographical information about famous personalities, information about cities and countries, historical events, etc. Purpose linguistic dictionaries the other is that they contain information about the word. There are various types of linguistic dictionaries: explanatory, dictionaries of foreign words, etymological, spelling, spelling, phraseological, dictionaries of synonyms, homonyms, antonyms, dictionaries of linguistic terms, syntactic dictionaries, etc. Dictionaries describe the meaning of words: such dictionaries should be consulted if you need to find out what a word means. S. I. Ozhegov’s “Dictionary of the Russian Language” is widely used and famous. A special place among explanatory dictionaries is occupied by V. I. Dahl’s “Explanatory Dictionary of the Living Great Russian Language,” consisting of 4 volumes and containing more than 200 thousand words and 30 thousand proverbs, sayings, sayings, riddles, which are given as illustrations to explain the meanings of words. Although this dictionary is more than 100 years old (it was published in 1863-1866), its value does not fade with time: Dahl’s dictionary is an inexhaustible treasury for all those who are interested in the history of the Russian people, their culture and language. The origin of a word, its path in language, historical changes in its composition are recorded by historical and etymological dictionaries. In phraseological dictionaries you can find descriptions of stable phrases, learn about their origin and use. In 1967, ed. A.I. Molotkov published the first special “Phraseological Dictionary of the Russian Language,” in which over 4,000 phraseological units are explained. Information about the correct spelling of a word can be found in spelling dictionary, and about the correct pronunciation - in orthoepic. There are dictionaries grammatical, containing information about the morphological properties of the word. Exist dictionaries devoted to the description of individual groups of vocabulary: synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, paronyms. Lexicographers are working on compiling dictionaries of the language of writers; there is, for example, the “Dictionary of the Pushkin Language”. Dictionaries of speech irregularities and difficulties help to avoid speech errors in the use of certain words or their forms. When learning a foreign language, it is impossible to do without bilingual dictionaries.

The object of description in a linguistic dictionary is a unit of language, most often a word. The purpose of the description in a linguistic dictionary is to provide information not about the designated object itself, but about the linguistic unit (its meaning, compatibility, etc.), but the nature of the information provided by the dictionary varies depending on the type of linguistic dictionary.

Linguistic dictionaries, in turn, are divided into two types: bilingual (less often multilingual), i.e. translation ones, which we use when studying a foreign language, when working with foreign language text (Russian-English dictionary, Polish-Russian dictionary, etc. ), and monolingual. The most important type of monolingual linguistic dictionary is an explanatory dictionary, which contains words with an explanation of their meanings, grammatical and stylistic characteristics. The desire to collect and systematize phraseological units of the Russian language was expressed in the publication of a number of phraseological collections. There are also dictionaries of synonyms, antonyms, homonyms, paronyms and dictionaries of new words; dictionaries of compatibility (lexical), grammatical dictionaries and dictionaries of correctness (difficulties); word-formation, dialect, frequency and reverse dictionaries; spelling and spelling dictionaries; onomastic dictionaries (dictionaries of proper names); dictionaries of foreign words.

Types of normative dictionaries and principles of working with them

Dictionary . The most complete information about a word is provided by an explanatory dictionary. The modern standard explanatory dictionary is the explanatory dictionary of the Russian language by S.I. Ozhegov and N.Yu. Shvedova. It serves as a guide to the correct use of words, correct formation of words, correct pronunciation and spelling. From the entire variety of vocabulary of the modern Russian language, its main composition has been selected for this dictionary. In accordance with the objectives of the dictionary, it did not include: special words and meanings that have a narrow professional use; dialect words and meanings, if they are not used widely enough in the literary language; colloquial words and meanings with a pronounced rough coloring; outdated words and meanings that have fallen out of active use; proper names.

The dictionary reveals the meaning of a word in a brief definition sufficient to understand the word itself and its use.

The dictionary describes the use of the word: bookish, high, official, colloquial, colloquial, regional, contemptuous, special.

After interpreting the meaning of the word, where necessary, examples are given to illustrate its use in speech. Examples help to more accurately understand the meaning of the word and how to use it. As examples, short phrases, the most common combinations of words, as well as proverbs, proverbs, everyday and figurative expressions showing the use of a given word are given.

After the interpretation and examples, phraseological units that include this word are given.

Pronouncing dictionary fixes the norms of pronunciation and stress. The first such dictionary was published in 1959: it is “Russian literary pronunciation and stress.

This dictionary mainly includes the following words:

whose pronunciation cannot be clearly established on the basis of their written form;

having movable stress in grammatical forms;

forming some grammatical forms in non-standard ways;

words that experience fluctuations in stress throughout the entire system of forms or in individual forms.

The dictionary introduces a scale of normativity: some options are considered equal, in other cases one of the options is recognized as the main one, and the other is acceptable. The dictionary also gives marks indicating the variant of pronunciation of the word in poetic and professional speech.

The following main phenomena are reflected in pronunciation notes:

softening of consonants, i.e. soft pronunciation of consonants under the influence of subsequent soft consonants, for example, review, -и [нзь];

changes occurring in consonant clusters, for example, pronunciation of stn as [sn] (local);

possible pronunciation of one consonant sound (hard or soft) in place of two identical letters, for example, apparatus, -a [n]; effect, -a [f];

firm pronunciation of consonants followed by the vowel e in place of spelling combinations with e in words of foreign language origin, for example, hotel, -ya [te];

lack of reduction in words of foreign origin, i.e. pronunciation of unstressed vowel sounds in place of the letters o, e, a, which does not correspond to the rules of reading, for example, bonton, -a [bo]; nocturne, -a [faculty. But];

features in the pronunciation of consonants associated with syllable separation in words with secondary stress, for example, head of the laboratory [zaf/l], neskl. m, f.

Dictionaries of synonyms Russian language give the reader the opportunity to find a replacement for any word or combination, answer the question of how to say differently, how to express the same thought in other words, name this or that object. Words in such a dictionary are given in the form of rows of synonyms for basic words, arranged alphabetically

Dictionaries of paronyms allow you to understand the meanings of words that are close in sound but different in meaning, such as, for example, deep - deep, heroism - heroism - heroism, wait - wait. The structure of the dictionary entry in the “Dictionary of paronyms of the modern Russian language” by Yu.A. Belchikov and M.S. Panyusheva (M.: Russian language, 1994) includes an interpretive part, a comparison of the combinatory possibilities of paronyms and a commentary that explains the differences in the meanings of paronyms and situations of their use are described, and the grammatical and stylistic properties of paronyms are characterized.

Foreign dictionaries strange words have the same purpose and structure of a dictionary entry as explanatory dictionaries, differing from them in that they contain words of foreign origin, which are also indicated in the dictionary entry.

Terminology dictionaries have a professional orientation - they are intended for specialists in a certain field of scientific knowledge or practical activity. These dictionaries describe not the linguistic properties of words and combinations, but the content of scientific and other special concepts and the nomenclature of things and phenomena with which a specialist in a certain branch of science or production deals.